Riachtanais Oideachasúla Speisialta / Special Educational Needs
Apps for Children with ASD Starfall ABC/ Learn to Read
• Super Why! • The Monster at the Ed of This Book • Teach your Monster to Read • Emotions and Feelings—Autism • Pop Math (Lite) • Agnitus—Games for Learning • Doodle Buddy • Avaz Pro • LAMP Words for Life • Sono Flex • TouchChat HD • This for That: Visual Schedules • Pictello • More apps can be found on https://www.autismspeaks.org/autism-apps Scóir Chaighdeánaithe Thástála / Standardised Test Scores
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Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
Autism is a group of neurodevelopmental disorders, characterised by difficulties with social communication and interaction, combined with repetitive patterns of behaviour and activities
Difficulties that learners with ASD may experience:Learners with ASD can experience various difficulties. These difficulties can be seen in the accompanying diagram and will be elaborated upon in this section.
1. Impairments in social interactions:
ASD can impact on a child’s ability to communicate and relate to people around them (Humphrey & Hebron, 2014). Thus, individuals with ASD can have difficulties interacting with others and understanding what they may be thinking (INTO, 2002). They can be seen as literal thinkers, and may be confused by social conventions (Department of Education and Skills (DES), 2006). Furthermore, children with ASD can be described as being in a world of their own, lacking understanding of people around them (Wing & Gould 1979). Due to this lack of social understanding social interactions can be restricted (Drudy, 2001). Consequently, engaging in social play, and forming peer friendships can be difficult (Drudy, 2001). As suggested by Humphrey and Hebron (2014) their lack of social awareness can lead to an increased risk of being bullied and social isolation. Their study underscores the importance of providing children with strategies for peer support and development of relationships.
2. Impairments in language and communication:
Individuals with ASD can also have difficulties with verbal or non-verbal communication (Drudy, 2001). As noted by the INTO (2002), they may also be slow to develop speech or in some cases may not develop speech at all. This can lead to a variety of verbal difficulties such as a delay in language development, echolalia (repeating words heard), poor vocabulary, and literal understanding (Drudy, 2001). Furthermore, impairments in non-verbal communication can present, such as difficulties with empathy, knowledge of social cues, body language and reading expressions (Drudy, 2001). Children with ASD require direct teaching in the purpose of communication, particularly the social aspects. This includes aspects such as gestures, tone of voice and body language (DES, 2006).
3. Rigidity of thinking – impairment of imagination
Children with ASD can have limited imagination and rigidity of thinking (Drudy, 2001). They may have a limited ability to play with toys, and develop preoccupation with certain toys (INTO, 2002), lacking the impulse to engage in spontaneous play (DES, 2006). This many present as resistance to change, and a desire to stick with routine and predicted behaviour (Drudy, 2001). Children may also lack shared attention, whereby they cannot engage in the activities or enjoyment of others (Drudy, 2001).
Social Skills Interventions for learners with ASDTeachers should be well-informed about social-skills strategies and supports that they can implement. The following social-skills instruction strategies are outlined below:
• Social stories
• Peer mediated techniques
• Peer reading
• Shadowing
• Circle of friends
• Explicit teaching of communication skills
• Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS)
• Lámh
• Visual Supports
• TEACCH programme
• ABA
• Assistive technologies
ASD can impact on a child’s ability to communicate and relate to people around them (Humphrey & Hebron, 2014). Thus, individuals with ASD can have difficulties interacting with others and understanding what they may be thinking (INTO, 2002). They can be seen as literal thinkers, and may be confused by social conventions (Department of Education and Skills (DES), 2006). Furthermore, children with ASD can be described as being in a world of their own, lacking understanding of people around them (Wing & Gould 1979). Due to this lack of social understanding social interactions can be restricted (Drudy, 2001). Consequently, engaging in social play, and forming peer friendships can be difficult (Drudy, 2001). As suggested by Humphrey and Hebron (2014) their lack of social awareness can lead to an increased risk of being bullied and social isolation. Their study underscores the importance of providing children with strategies for peer support and development of relationships.
2. Impairments in language and communication:
Individuals with ASD can also have difficulties with verbal or non-verbal communication (Drudy, 2001). As noted by the INTO (2002), they may also be slow to develop speech or in some cases may not develop speech at all. This can lead to a variety of verbal difficulties such as a delay in language development, echolalia (repeating words heard), poor vocabulary, and literal understanding (Drudy, 2001). Furthermore, impairments in non-verbal communication can present, such as difficulties with empathy, knowledge of social cues, body language and reading expressions (Drudy, 2001). Children with ASD require direct teaching in the purpose of communication, particularly the social aspects. This includes aspects such as gestures, tone of voice and body language (DES, 2006).
3. Rigidity of thinking – impairment of imagination
Children with ASD can have limited imagination and rigidity of thinking (Drudy, 2001). They may have a limited ability to play with toys, and develop preoccupation with certain toys (INTO, 2002), lacking the impulse to engage in spontaneous play (DES, 2006). This many present as resistance to change, and a desire to stick with routine and predicted behaviour (Drudy, 2001). Children may also lack shared attention, whereby they cannot engage in the activities or enjoyment of others (Drudy, 2001).
Social Skills Interventions for learners with ASDTeachers should be well-informed about social-skills strategies and supports that they can implement. The following social-skills instruction strategies are outlined below:
• Social stories
• Peer mediated techniques
• Peer reading
• Shadowing
• Circle of friends
• Explicit teaching of communication skills
• Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS)
• Lámh
• Visual Supports
• TEACCH programme
• ABA
• Assistive technologies
Social Stories
Social stories are an educational tool to enable teachers to share information meaningfully and accurately about various concepts, interactions and situations which those with ASD may find challenging. Through these stories these situations are described in detail and focus on events and reactions an individual might expect to occur in a given situation as well as the actions and reactions that might be expected of them. In short, they introduce predictability to situations those with ASD may find confusing, thereby reducing anxiety and promoting understanding (Gray, 1998). This can promote the inclusion of a child with ASD in a mainstream classroom.
Access to social storiesSocial stories can be downloaded freely from many websites including the following:
• https://www.sess.ie/categories/autism/autistic-spectrum-disorders/autism-resources
• http://www.twinkl.ie
• http://www.kansasasd.com/socialnarratives.php
Peer Mediated Techniques
As a result of the deficits in the social relationships of children with ASD, an emphasis is often placed on assisting the student in developing relationships and engaging in reciprocal communication through incidental learning and teaching contexts (SESS, n.d.). Peer-mediated interventions have, therefore, been promoted as potential approaches for supporting the participation and inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classroom settings. Such strategies typically involve the use of socially competent peers to model and reinforce appropriate social behaviour for children with ASD (DiSalvo & Oswald, 2002). Below are examples of such interventions.
Peer reading
One strategy which can be effective for learners with ASD is peer/paired reading. In this strategy, students read aloud to each other. They then discuss the content of what they have read. This strategy can teach learners with ASD about turn taking, listening to others, conversation and other social norms.
Shadowing
Another inclusive teaching strategy is shadowing. Safran (2002) recommends a one-to-one shadow who assists the student with ASD to keep on task as well as supporting them in social situations. These one-to-one aides can serve as “social interpreters” in an inclusive classroom and can help certain pupils manage their social responses and emotions. However, it should occur on a temporary basis in order to avoid dependence.
Circle of Friends
Through this approach pupils with ASD are taught to directly participate in activities with their typically developing peers. It facilitates the inclusion of children with ASD into the school community by engaging their peer group in supporting the individual proactively. The child’s peers are included in the child’s social circle and they are expected to behave in a friendly manner. Weekly monitoring of progress is essential to identify successes and failures of the programme (SESS, n.d.). It is a powerful intervention that, when carefully applied, can improve the social skills of children with ASD and their ability to communicate, and ultimately facilitate their inclusion in mainstream settings (Kalyva & Avramidis, 2005). “Buddy systems” are another teaching strategy, also used to promote the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms (SESS, n.d.).
Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS)
PECS is an alternative method of communication which relieves the pressure created by an inability to converse verbally, which some people with ASD experience. This system targets, promotes and develops the learners’ communication skills which can benefit them within a mainstream classroom. The programme replaces the verbal element of a conversation with a picture or symbol. As it is a visual strategy, this often appeals to learners with ASD. The PECS system allows children with little or no verbal ability to communicate through the use of images.
Through this approach pupils with ASD are taught to directly participate in activities with their typically developing peers. It facilitates the inclusion of children with ASD into the school community by engaging their peer group in supporting the individual proactively. The child’s peers are included in the child’s social circle and they are expected to behave in a friendly manner. Weekly monitoring of progress is essential to identify successes and failures of the programme (SESS, n.d.). It is a powerful intervention that, when carefully applied, can improve the social skills of children with ASD and their ability to communicate, and ultimately facilitate their inclusion in mainstream settings (Kalyva & Avramidis, 2005). “Buddy systems” are another teaching strategy, also used to promote the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms (SESS, n.d.).
Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS)
PECS is an alternative method of communication which relieves the pressure created by an inability to converse verbally, which some people with ASD experience. This system targets, promotes and develops the learners’ communication skills which can benefit them within a mainstream classroom. The programme replaces the verbal element of a conversation with a picture or symbol. As it is a visual strategy, this often appeals to learners with ASD. The PECS system allows children with little or no verbal ability to communicate through the use of images.
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LámhLámh is a manual sign system that is based on Irish Sign Language. This is another visual method of communication. It designed for children and adults with intellectual disabilities and communication needs in Ireland. It is not a language and it is designed for use with speech. It is advantageous as it means a person can see as well as hear what is being communicated. This system could be used to develop a child’s communication within a mainstream classroom. However, teachers from mainstream schools may not be familiar with or have experience using this visual aid (Jones & Farrell, 2014). More information can be found on
http://www.lamh.org/
http://www.lamh.org/
Visual Supports
For children with ASD, visual supports are a non-intrusive intervention strategy that can be individualised to help support social and behaviour learning as well as support the inclusion of these children in a mainstream classroom. It is thought that visual strategies remove some of the sensory and cognitive demands placed on the child with ASD during social interactions. By doing so, visual strategies can facilitate social communication between a child with ASD and others (Murdock & Hobbs, 2011)
Visual StructureChildren with ASD respond well to visual structure. A visual schedule gives a clear, coherent, organised structure to the day as it presents activities and events in a logical sequence. Indeed, visual structures and cues are needed for many typical classroom situations when working with children with ASD, as they are visual learners and respond well to visual stimuli. Using a visual colour-coding system can help them overcome their organizational problems. They can also have difficulty remembering long verbal instructions and these should be provided with a visual representation when possible (Special Education Support Service (SESS), n.d.).
For children with ASD, visual supports are a non-intrusive intervention strategy that can be individualised to help support social and behaviour learning as well as support the inclusion of these children in a mainstream classroom. It is thought that visual strategies remove some of the sensory and cognitive demands placed on the child with ASD during social interactions. By doing so, visual strategies can facilitate social communication between a child with ASD and others (Murdock & Hobbs, 2011)
Visual StructureChildren with ASD respond well to visual structure. A visual schedule gives a clear, coherent, organised structure to the day as it presents activities and events in a logical sequence. Indeed, visual structures and cues are needed for many typical classroom situations when working with children with ASD, as they are visual learners and respond well to visual stimuli. Using a visual colour-coding system can help them overcome their organizational problems. They can also have difficulty remembering long verbal instructions and these should be provided with a visual representation when possible (Special Education Support Service (SESS), n.d.).
Visual supports for learners with ASD can be downloaded from a variety of websites including:
• http://www.twinkl.ie
• https://www.autismspeaks.org/docs/sciencedocs/atn/visual_supports.pdf
• http://cdd.unm.edu/autism/pdfs/Visual%20Supports%20PHT%20Parent%20Handout.pdf
• http://www.practicalautismresources.com/printables
TEACCH programme
The Treatment and Education of Autistic and related Communication-handicapped CHildren (TEACCH) approach has been specifically designed for children with ASD and is founded on the rationale that pupils with ASD progress better in structured environments. It is evidence- based and can be for individuals of all ages and skill levels with ASD. The core idea behind TEACCH is structured teaching and it can be implemented in a mainstream setting, although it is typically administered in special education settings (Autism Community, 2011). Building on the fact that autistic children are often visual learners, TEACCH brings visual clarity to the learning process in order to develop receptiveness, understanding, organization and independence (IAA, n.d.). The elements of the TEACCH programme include the physical structure of the classroom, a visual schedule, an explanation of the work expected and instructions presented visually in addition to verbally. The programme follows precise routines and the need for assistance is reduced, thereby, facilitating independence. It follows the principle of place-activity correspondence which is clear and predictable for these learners. Usually, in classrooms, the ‘time’ of activities and their duration are decided by the teacher. However, in the TEACCH programme, this is indicated by visual aids. Learners can ‘see’ the schedule of the day, and they are aware what is going to happen later. Some ideas regarding setting up a TEACCH classroom can be found here https://www.autismclassroomresources.com/setting-work-system-stations-workbasket-wednesday/
Behavioural Approaches
Behavioural approaches originate from Skinner’s work in the 1950s and focus on modifying and shaping a student’s behaviour using reinforcement, shaping, promoting and prompt-fading.
Applied Behavioural Analysis (ABA)
Applied Behavioural Analysis (ABA) is a systematic approach to the assessment and evaluation of behaviour, and the application of interventions that can change behaviour. It incorporates positive reinforcement in order to shape behaviour in those with ASD. It is often used as a teaching method, or as a classroom management technique for promoting positive behaviour (Autism Speaks Inc, 2012). Task analysis is used and all skills are broken down into small, manageable steps. Pupils repeatedly learn and practice these skills in a variety of settings, with an abundance of positive reinforcement. The aims of the intervention, the instructional-style and the positive reinforcement applied are suited to the strengths and needs of the student. The teacher continuously monitors performance, observes the progress of the learner. If the learner is not progressing the intervention can be modified (Irish Autism Action, n.d.).
Assistive Technology (AT)
is any item, piece of equipment, or system that is used by a person with a disability to aid in the performance of certain tasks, improve functionality and gain independence. AT is constantly evolving and expanding and for those with ASD it can redefine the possibilities for pupils with cognitive, physical or sensory disabilities (Autism Speaks Inc, 2012). Computers have features that distinctively appeal to pupils with ASD and can be used to support all areas of the curriculum thereby facilitating inclusion in the mainstream classroom (SESS. n.d.). Devices such as smart phones, iPads and iPhones are becoming increasingly more popular as they can provide a wide range of applications to support many needs. Applications can be used for supporting communication, literacy development, modelling skills, motivation and organization.
Practical methods of differentiating teaching for learners with ASD:
• Learners with ASD should be given an achievable workload and should exert some control over the work they are learning.
• There should be a clear and definite end, determined by reinforcement, activity or playtime.
• Their work should also have at least one familiar aspect or one enjoyable feature for the learner that they are interested in. These interests should also be used when introducing new task for the learner, to have a calming effect.
• Each specific task should also be allocated a specific area and pupils should be aware from their visual timetable, what will come next in the sequence of activities.
Clear modelling backed up with statements• In addition, tasks should be clearly modelled and statements should be clear (Larkey, 2006).
• Information should also be presented at a slower pace (Ashburner, Ziviani, & Rodger, 2008).
• A list of rewards, based on what interests and motivates the learners should be compiled, which can be provided immediately and changed frequently to maintain the learners’ motivation (Larkey, 2006).
• First Then charts can also be used to motivate children with ASD to complete tasks. The prospect of achieving a task they like after they complete another task first.
• A structured daily routine should be devised and implemented by the teacher.
• Teachers should incorporate breaks into the schedules of student’s with ASD, so they will have time to mentally prepare for the next one (Palmer, 2006).
• When new activities are going to occur, pupils should be helped to cope with these changes. The teacher should pre-empt the anxiety and stress that the student may experience from being presented with unstructured, alien situations without having been warned. Additionally, the teacher should be considerate of the difficulties pupils with ASD can experience during less structured times of the day such as break or lunch times, entering and leaving the school and during lesson transitions (SESS, n.d.).
• Whenever possible, explain changes in routine in advance, however, with older pupils, explain to them that advance notice is not always possible. As these pupils often have excellent rote memories, it can often be useful to refer back to such conversations (Safran, 2002).
• As these pupils often have impaired motor skills, the use of word processing for written work can be useful.
• They should also be allowed extra time or a private space to complete assigned work (Safran, 2002).
Difficulties that learners with ASD can experience
Lessons with a lot of word problems, estimation, algebra, or geometry can pose problems for many pupils with ASD because of the higher order thinking and abstraction involved (Burrows & Wagner, 2004). As a result of their literal style of thinking, learners with ASD have difficulty with literature that has implied meanings. Creative writing can also be difficult (Jacobsen, 2005). These pupils can often have difficulty with physical education courses resulting from loud gymnasiums and whistles, clumsiness, and difficulty conforming to the social expectations associated with team sports (Bashe & Kirby, 2005) therefore non-competitive sports may be more suitable. Teachers should be aware of these possible difficulties and structured teaching styles are the most beneficial for those with ASD (Burrows & Wagner, 2004).
Motivation
Motivation is critical when differentiating tasks for learners with ASD and developing effective educational approaches. Knowing what motivates a particular student and using their interests to focus attention to a less interesting or non-preferred is critical for developing an educational plan for pupils with ASD. As a student becomes familiar and more competent with new skills, confidence, interest and motivation increase. Social stories are one teaching strategy that are designed to incorporate individual interests and motivation (Howley & Arnold, 2005).
Anxiety masked by challenging behaviourA large proportion of children and young people with ASD will present with anxiety. This may present as problematic behaviour. Children and young people with ASD experiencing stress may also react by displaying extremely challenging behaviours. These behaviours are often an attempt to communicate. Certain strategies can be useful in these stressful situations for example removing the child temporarily from the situation, communicating to the child that their stress is understood, taking a quiet walk with the child, redirecting their attention to something that isn’t upsetting or going to a relaxing area. This could be a safe area that has been established in the classroom. The teacher should provide a time with a timer when in this space to ensure they return to their usual seat after a “timeout” from the stressful situation.
Teach Learners with ASD how to deal with stressThe child should be taught explicitly how to deal with his or her stress. As well as these calming interventions, it is also important for adults to know which behaviours are likely to escalate a crisis and avoid these. Additionally, the best intervention is prevention, which occurs through instruction in a variety of areas such as social understanding and problem solving. One strategy to achieve this is the Stop, Observe, Deliberate and Act (SODA) visual strategy which encourages children and young people with ASD to explore social cues and discuss possible responses to them (Smith Myles, 2003).
Self-esteem
When teaching children with ASD, it is important to look for opportunities to boost their self-esteem and encourage independence (SESS, n.d.). People with ASD may notice that they are different from their peers and they can engage in negative comparisons between themselves and their peers. Teachers must ensure to praise and reward every attempt and effort, not solely successes. Teachers should utilise the interests the child may have an allow them to teach or present this topic to the class or tutor a younger class. This will increase their confidence and self-esteem. Different teaching and assessment techniques can be chosen to provide them with the opportunity to enjoy and succeed at school (Ford, 2014).
The Classroom EnvironmentWhen teaching children with ASD in a mainstream classroom setting, adjustments may need to be made to the classroom to address the pupils’ sensory needs. Children with ASD have unusual responses to sensory input, with significant difficulties evident in auditory filtering, hyper-sensitivity to touch, under-responsiveness and sensation seeking. These difficulties can significantly impact on educational, emotional and behavioural outcomes, included reduced attention and academic attainment resulting in increased anxiety within the classroom. The classroom environment should be simplified by reducing the amount of external, unnecessary sensory input. Additionally, unpredictable touch input should be reduced, by seating the learner at an appropriate distance from other pupils (Ashburner, Ziviani, & Rodger, 2008). Furthermore, the classroom environment should be structured to minimise distractions and allow the teacher to secure the pupils attention during activities (SESS, n.d.). A safe haven should be provided for pupils, as they can become overwhelmed by noise, crowds or the stress of engaging in social interactions. Children with ASD should be seated next to an understanding “peer buddy” and a trusted contact person should also be available to prevent or diffuse a crisis (Safran, 2002). Ultimately, a safe, supportive and accepting environment founded on respect and support for everyone will strengthen the social development for all pupils.
• http://www.twinkl.ie
• https://www.autismspeaks.org/docs/sciencedocs/atn/visual_supports.pdf
• http://cdd.unm.edu/autism/pdfs/Visual%20Supports%20PHT%20Parent%20Handout.pdf
• http://www.practicalautismresources.com/printables
TEACCH programme
The Treatment and Education of Autistic and related Communication-handicapped CHildren (TEACCH) approach has been specifically designed for children with ASD and is founded on the rationale that pupils with ASD progress better in structured environments. It is evidence- based and can be for individuals of all ages and skill levels with ASD. The core idea behind TEACCH is structured teaching and it can be implemented in a mainstream setting, although it is typically administered in special education settings (Autism Community, 2011). Building on the fact that autistic children are often visual learners, TEACCH brings visual clarity to the learning process in order to develop receptiveness, understanding, organization and independence (IAA, n.d.). The elements of the TEACCH programme include the physical structure of the classroom, a visual schedule, an explanation of the work expected and instructions presented visually in addition to verbally. The programme follows precise routines and the need for assistance is reduced, thereby, facilitating independence. It follows the principle of place-activity correspondence which is clear and predictable for these learners. Usually, in classrooms, the ‘time’ of activities and their duration are decided by the teacher. However, in the TEACCH programme, this is indicated by visual aids. Learners can ‘see’ the schedule of the day, and they are aware what is going to happen later. Some ideas regarding setting up a TEACCH classroom can be found here https://www.autismclassroomresources.com/setting-work-system-stations-workbasket-wednesday/
Behavioural Approaches
Behavioural approaches originate from Skinner’s work in the 1950s and focus on modifying and shaping a student’s behaviour using reinforcement, shaping, promoting and prompt-fading.
Applied Behavioural Analysis (ABA)
Applied Behavioural Analysis (ABA) is a systematic approach to the assessment and evaluation of behaviour, and the application of interventions that can change behaviour. It incorporates positive reinforcement in order to shape behaviour in those with ASD. It is often used as a teaching method, or as a classroom management technique for promoting positive behaviour (Autism Speaks Inc, 2012). Task analysis is used and all skills are broken down into small, manageable steps. Pupils repeatedly learn and practice these skills in a variety of settings, with an abundance of positive reinforcement. The aims of the intervention, the instructional-style and the positive reinforcement applied are suited to the strengths and needs of the student. The teacher continuously monitors performance, observes the progress of the learner. If the learner is not progressing the intervention can be modified (Irish Autism Action, n.d.).
Assistive Technology (AT)
is any item, piece of equipment, or system that is used by a person with a disability to aid in the performance of certain tasks, improve functionality and gain independence. AT is constantly evolving and expanding and for those with ASD it can redefine the possibilities for pupils with cognitive, physical or sensory disabilities (Autism Speaks Inc, 2012). Computers have features that distinctively appeal to pupils with ASD and can be used to support all areas of the curriculum thereby facilitating inclusion in the mainstream classroom (SESS. n.d.). Devices such as smart phones, iPads and iPhones are becoming increasingly more popular as they can provide a wide range of applications to support many needs. Applications can be used for supporting communication, literacy development, modelling skills, motivation and organization.
Practical methods of differentiating teaching for learners with ASD:
• Learners with ASD should be given an achievable workload and should exert some control over the work they are learning.
• There should be a clear and definite end, determined by reinforcement, activity or playtime.
• Their work should also have at least one familiar aspect or one enjoyable feature for the learner that they are interested in. These interests should also be used when introducing new task for the learner, to have a calming effect.
• Each specific task should also be allocated a specific area and pupils should be aware from their visual timetable, what will come next in the sequence of activities.
Clear modelling backed up with statements• In addition, tasks should be clearly modelled and statements should be clear (Larkey, 2006).
• Information should also be presented at a slower pace (Ashburner, Ziviani, & Rodger, 2008).
• A list of rewards, based on what interests and motivates the learners should be compiled, which can be provided immediately and changed frequently to maintain the learners’ motivation (Larkey, 2006).
• First Then charts can also be used to motivate children with ASD to complete tasks. The prospect of achieving a task they like after they complete another task first.
• A structured daily routine should be devised and implemented by the teacher.
• Teachers should incorporate breaks into the schedules of student’s with ASD, so they will have time to mentally prepare for the next one (Palmer, 2006).
• When new activities are going to occur, pupils should be helped to cope with these changes. The teacher should pre-empt the anxiety and stress that the student may experience from being presented with unstructured, alien situations without having been warned. Additionally, the teacher should be considerate of the difficulties pupils with ASD can experience during less structured times of the day such as break or lunch times, entering and leaving the school and during lesson transitions (SESS, n.d.).
• Whenever possible, explain changes in routine in advance, however, with older pupils, explain to them that advance notice is not always possible. As these pupils often have excellent rote memories, it can often be useful to refer back to such conversations (Safran, 2002).
• As these pupils often have impaired motor skills, the use of word processing for written work can be useful.
• They should also be allowed extra time or a private space to complete assigned work (Safran, 2002).
Difficulties that learners with ASD can experience
Lessons with a lot of word problems, estimation, algebra, or geometry can pose problems for many pupils with ASD because of the higher order thinking and abstraction involved (Burrows & Wagner, 2004). As a result of their literal style of thinking, learners with ASD have difficulty with literature that has implied meanings. Creative writing can also be difficult (Jacobsen, 2005). These pupils can often have difficulty with physical education courses resulting from loud gymnasiums and whistles, clumsiness, and difficulty conforming to the social expectations associated with team sports (Bashe & Kirby, 2005) therefore non-competitive sports may be more suitable. Teachers should be aware of these possible difficulties and structured teaching styles are the most beneficial for those with ASD (Burrows & Wagner, 2004).
Motivation
Motivation is critical when differentiating tasks for learners with ASD and developing effective educational approaches. Knowing what motivates a particular student and using their interests to focus attention to a less interesting or non-preferred is critical for developing an educational plan for pupils with ASD. As a student becomes familiar and more competent with new skills, confidence, interest and motivation increase. Social stories are one teaching strategy that are designed to incorporate individual interests and motivation (Howley & Arnold, 2005).
Anxiety masked by challenging behaviourA large proportion of children and young people with ASD will present with anxiety. This may present as problematic behaviour. Children and young people with ASD experiencing stress may also react by displaying extremely challenging behaviours. These behaviours are often an attempt to communicate. Certain strategies can be useful in these stressful situations for example removing the child temporarily from the situation, communicating to the child that their stress is understood, taking a quiet walk with the child, redirecting their attention to something that isn’t upsetting or going to a relaxing area. This could be a safe area that has been established in the classroom. The teacher should provide a time with a timer when in this space to ensure they return to their usual seat after a “timeout” from the stressful situation.
Teach Learners with ASD how to deal with stressThe child should be taught explicitly how to deal with his or her stress. As well as these calming interventions, it is also important for adults to know which behaviours are likely to escalate a crisis and avoid these. Additionally, the best intervention is prevention, which occurs through instruction in a variety of areas such as social understanding and problem solving. One strategy to achieve this is the Stop, Observe, Deliberate and Act (SODA) visual strategy which encourages children and young people with ASD to explore social cues and discuss possible responses to them (Smith Myles, 2003).
Self-esteem
When teaching children with ASD, it is important to look for opportunities to boost their self-esteem and encourage independence (SESS, n.d.). People with ASD may notice that they are different from their peers and they can engage in negative comparisons between themselves and their peers. Teachers must ensure to praise and reward every attempt and effort, not solely successes. Teachers should utilise the interests the child may have an allow them to teach or present this topic to the class or tutor a younger class. This will increase their confidence and self-esteem. Different teaching and assessment techniques can be chosen to provide them with the opportunity to enjoy and succeed at school (Ford, 2014).
The Classroom EnvironmentWhen teaching children with ASD in a mainstream classroom setting, adjustments may need to be made to the classroom to address the pupils’ sensory needs. Children with ASD have unusual responses to sensory input, with significant difficulties evident in auditory filtering, hyper-sensitivity to touch, under-responsiveness and sensation seeking. These difficulties can significantly impact on educational, emotional and behavioural outcomes, included reduced attention and academic attainment resulting in increased anxiety within the classroom. The classroom environment should be simplified by reducing the amount of external, unnecessary sensory input. Additionally, unpredictable touch input should be reduced, by seating the learner at an appropriate distance from other pupils (Ashburner, Ziviani, & Rodger, 2008). Furthermore, the classroom environment should be structured to minimise distractions and allow the teacher to secure the pupils attention during activities (SESS, n.d.). A safe haven should be provided for pupils, as they can become overwhelmed by noise, crowds or the stress of engaging in social interactions. Children with ASD should be seated next to an understanding “peer buddy” and a trusted contact person should also be available to prevent or diffuse a crisis (Safran, 2002). Ultimately, a safe, supportive and accepting environment founded on respect and support for everyone will strengthen the social development for all pupils.
Dyslexia
Dyslexia is a learning difficulty affecting reading and spelling, fluency and accuracy
Signs of Dyslexia (DES, 2002, p. 112)
• Is slow to learn the connection between letters and sounds (alphabetic principle)
• Has difficulty separating words into sounds, and blending sounds to form words (phonemic awareness)
• Has difficulty repeating multi-syllabic words (e.g., emeny for enemy
• Confuses small or ‘easy’ words: at/to said/and does/goes
• May make constant reading and spelling errors including:
• Letter reversals (e.g., d for b as in dog for bog)
• Letter inversions (e.g., m for w)
• Letter transpositions (e.g., felt and left)
• Word reversals (e.g., tip for pit)
• Word substitutions (e.g., house for home)
• Reads slowly with little expression or fluency (oral reading is slow and laborious)
• Has more difficulty with function words (e.g., is, to, of) than with content words (e.g., cloud, run, yellow)
• May be slow to learn new skills, relying heavily on memorising without understanding
Reading comprehension is below expectation due to poor accuracy, fluency and speed
• Reading comprehension is better than single-word reading
• Listening comprehension is better than reading comprehension
• Has trouble learning facts
• Poor balance
• Has difficulty planning or organising
• Uses awkward pencil grip
• Has slow and poor quality handwriting
• Has trouble learning to tell the time on an analogue clock or watch
• Has poor fine motor co-ordination
• Slow to discern prefixes, suffixes and root words (older child)
• Spelling is inappropriate for age and ability
• Using avoidance tactics when reading and writing
• Has poor planning and organisation skills
• Poor time-management
• Has difficulty decoding single words (reading single words in isolation)
• Has poor word-attack skills, especially for new words
Strategies to support children with dyslexia (Adapted from SESS, ND & DAI, ND)
• A structured, multi-sensory programme should be used to teach reading and spelling.
• Focus specific instruction on phonological awareness (hearing discrete sounds in words orally)
• Specific phonics instruction (connecting the oral sound to a letter)
• Work on sight vocabulary in conjunction with phonics instruction e.g. NEPS 100 word checklist (see image),dolch list or fry list
• Directly teach comprehension strategies e.g. using supports such as ARROW (see image below) and Acceleread Accelewrite
• Log child’s fluency (See below image)
• Allow children to orally respond to ensure understanding of texts
• Provide a quiet learning environment
• Introduce and reinforce the use of meta-cognitive strategies (for example, cue cards) that enable the student to exercise control over his/her learning processes
• Use a wide variety of reading methods to promote fluency e.g. paired read, choral reading, readers theatre, guided reading, silent reading, echo reading
• Read aloud to the child so they can listen for pleasure
• Avoid asking the child to read aloud in front of the class unless they have been given time to prepare
• Give short clear instructions
• Ask child to repeat instructions back. This can be a useful memory aid
• Over-learning is essential. Although a child may have covered something one day they may not remember it the next. It is important that they are given opportunity for repetition and consolidation of knowledge
• Do no correct every error in writing. Rather focus on a small number of errors or a specific type of error
• Use ICT as a resource and motivation tool e.g. Nessy (see image), Reading Eggs, Touch Typing
• Provide worksheets or arrange for notes to be copied rather than asking the child to copy from whiteboard
• Sit near the teacher if possible
• Reward effort as students can get disheartened if their effort is not acknowledged
• Encourage students to build up their stronger abilities in sports, technology, drama, science, maths, etc. This is an important way to build self-esteem.
• Work closely with parents. They are a valuable source of help and information
• Allow student extra time if necessary
• Small groups and individual tuition are more beneficial than larger groups
Classroom techniques• Working little and often is more effective than working for long periods of time
• Ensure interventions also focus on building the child’s self-esteem
• Focus on maths difficulties (if present) through the use of concrete materials, multi-sensory approach and real life situations
• Use of speech recognition technology
• Use of cue cards
• Learning should be structured, sequential and cumulative.
Signs of Dyslexia (DES, 2002, p. 112)
• Is slow to learn the connection between letters and sounds (alphabetic principle)
• Has difficulty separating words into sounds, and blending sounds to form words (phonemic awareness)
• Has difficulty repeating multi-syllabic words (e.g., emeny for enemy
• Confuses small or ‘easy’ words: at/to said/and does/goes
• May make constant reading and spelling errors including:
• Letter reversals (e.g., d for b as in dog for bog)
• Letter inversions (e.g., m for w)
• Letter transpositions (e.g., felt and left)
• Word reversals (e.g., tip for pit)
• Word substitutions (e.g., house for home)
• Reads slowly with little expression or fluency (oral reading is slow and laborious)
• Has more difficulty with function words (e.g., is, to, of) than with content words (e.g., cloud, run, yellow)
• May be slow to learn new skills, relying heavily on memorising without understanding
Reading comprehension is below expectation due to poor accuracy, fluency and speed
• Reading comprehension is better than single-word reading
• Listening comprehension is better than reading comprehension
• Has trouble learning facts
• Poor balance
• Has difficulty planning or organising
• Uses awkward pencil grip
• Has slow and poor quality handwriting
• Has trouble learning to tell the time on an analogue clock or watch
• Has poor fine motor co-ordination
• Slow to discern prefixes, suffixes and root words (older child)
• Spelling is inappropriate for age and ability
• Using avoidance tactics when reading and writing
• Has poor planning and organisation skills
• Poor time-management
• Has difficulty decoding single words (reading single words in isolation)
• Has poor word-attack skills, especially for new words
Strategies to support children with dyslexia (Adapted from SESS, ND & DAI, ND)
• A structured, multi-sensory programme should be used to teach reading and spelling.
• Focus specific instruction on phonological awareness (hearing discrete sounds in words orally)
• Specific phonics instruction (connecting the oral sound to a letter)
• Work on sight vocabulary in conjunction with phonics instruction e.g. NEPS 100 word checklist (see image),dolch list or fry list
• Directly teach comprehension strategies e.g. using supports such as ARROW (see image below) and Acceleread Accelewrite
• Log child’s fluency (See below image)
• Allow children to orally respond to ensure understanding of texts
• Provide a quiet learning environment
• Introduce and reinforce the use of meta-cognitive strategies (for example, cue cards) that enable the student to exercise control over his/her learning processes
• Use a wide variety of reading methods to promote fluency e.g. paired read, choral reading, readers theatre, guided reading, silent reading, echo reading
• Read aloud to the child so they can listen for pleasure
• Avoid asking the child to read aloud in front of the class unless they have been given time to prepare
• Give short clear instructions
• Ask child to repeat instructions back. This can be a useful memory aid
• Over-learning is essential. Although a child may have covered something one day they may not remember it the next. It is important that they are given opportunity for repetition and consolidation of knowledge
• Do no correct every error in writing. Rather focus on a small number of errors or a specific type of error
• Use ICT as a resource and motivation tool e.g. Nessy (see image), Reading Eggs, Touch Typing
• Provide worksheets or arrange for notes to be copied rather than asking the child to copy from whiteboard
• Sit near the teacher if possible
• Reward effort as students can get disheartened if their effort is not acknowledged
• Encourage students to build up their stronger abilities in sports, technology, drama, science, maths, etc. This is an important way to build self-esteem.
• Work closely with parents. They are a valuable source of help and information
• Allow student extra time if necessary
• Small groups and individual tuition are more beneficial than larger groups
Classroom techniques• Working little and often is more effective than working for long periods of time
• Ensure interventions also focus on building the child’s self-esteem
• Focus on maths difficulties (if present) through the use of concrete materials, multi-sensory approach and real life situations
• Use of speech recognition technology
• Use of cue cards
• Learning should be structured, sequential and cumulative.
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
ADHD is characterised by
• poor sustained attention
• impaired impulse control
• an inability to delay gratification
• excessive task-irrelevant activity
In a classroom situation, pupils with ADHD may
• often fidget with their hands or feet
• appear restless
• leave their seat
• run about
• climb excessively in situations where it is inappropriate
Have difficulty playing or engaging in leisure activities quietly
• Talk excessively
• Find it difficult to plan and control their behaviour
• Seem unaware of danger and have a tendency to rush into things
• Find listening to, remembering and following through on instructions difficult
• Fail to finish school work
• Be reluctant to engage in activities that require prolonged effort
• Be easily distracted
• Have difficulty organising materials
• poor sustained attention
• impaired impulse control
• an inability to delay gratification
• excessive task-irrelevant activity
In a classroom situation, pupils with ADHD may
• often fidget with their hands or feet
• appear restless
• leave their seat
• run about
• climb excessively in situations where it is inappropriate
Have difficulty playing or engaging in leisure activities quietly
• Talk excessively
• Find it difficult to plan and control their behaviour
• Seem unaware of danger and have a tendency to rush into things
• Find listening to, remembering and following through on instructions difficult
• Fail to finish school work
• Be reluctant to engage in activities that require prolonged effort
• Be easily distracted
• Have difficulty organising materials
Dyscalculia
Difficulties faced by people with dyscalculia
The British Dyslexia Association (n.d.) note that routine tasks can be problematic for an individual with dyscalculia. They experience difficulties with:
• numeracy
• counting
• calculations
• measures
• direction
• money transactions
• telling time
• reading speed dials
• reading thermometers
• map reading
• following directions
The British Dyslexia Association (n.d.) note that routine tasks can be problematic for an individual with dyscalculia. They experience difficulties with:
• numeracy
• counting
• calculations
• measures
• direction
• money transactions
• telling time
• reading speed dials
• reading thermometers
• map reading
• following directions
Dyscalculia is a SLD involving a deficit with numerosity that affects the ability to acquire arithmetical skills.
Signs of dyscalculia in the classroom include
• Difficulty with time, directions, sequences of events.
• Inconsistent results in addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
• Being bad at financial planning and money management.
• Struggling with mental maths
• An inability to grasp and remember maths concepts, rules, formulas
• When writing, reading and recalling numbers, these mistakes may occur: number additions, substitutions, transpositions, omissions, and reversals.
• Poor memory (retention & retrieval) of maths concepts- may be able to perform maths operations one day, but draw a blank the next!
• Difficulty remembering how to keep score in games, like bowling, cards, etc. Often loses track of whose turn it is.
General differentiation strategies
• Give sufficient time to master the skills in number work
• Teach at exactly the right level of difficulty (not too hard, not too easy!)
• Teach in small, progressive steps
• Be understanding and patient
• Have high expectations
• Be supportive
• Ensure the child achieves success
• Create a positive learning environment
• Ensure the child is an active participant in their learning
• Use short explanations and practical examples
• Use number games to encourage number recognition i.e. Four in a row, Snap, dominoes
• Incorporate informal number work at work with money and time (i.e. have their own watch, alarm clock, piggy bank)
• Avoid creating anxiety for the child
• Identify the child’s preferred learning style
• Teach more than one way to solve problems in maths
• Use their existing knowledge
• Concentrate on one concept at a time
• Encourage children to visualize mathematical problems. Encourage children to draw the problem
• When teaching new mathematical skills ensure that the problems are free of large numbers and unnecessary calculations
• Provide examples
• Provide plenty of opportunities for practice and consolidation
• Encourage students to teach a concept back in order to check understanding
• Directly teach the language of mathematics which differs from spoken English
• Use consistent mathematical language both in your classroom and throughout the school
• Make use of mnemonics and/or visual prompts to assist students in learning and remembering rules
Signs of dyscalculia in the classroom include
• Difficulty with time, directions, sequences of events.
• Inconsistent results in addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
• Being bad at financial planning and money management.
• Struggling with mental maths
• An inability to grasp and remember maths concepts, rules, formulas
• When writing, reading and recalling numbers, these mistakes may occur: number additions, substitutions, transpositions, omissions, and reversals.
• Poor memory (retention & retrieval) of maths concepts- may be able to perform maths operations one day, but draw a blank the next!
• Difficulty remembering how to keep score in games, like bowling, cards, etc. Often loses track of whose turn it is.
General differentiation strategies
• Give sufficient time to master the skills in number work
• Teach at exactly the right level of difficulty (not too hard, not too easy!)
• Teach in small, progressive steps
• Be understanding and patient
• Have high expectations
• Be supportive
• Ensure the child achieves success
• Create a positive learning environment
• Ensure the child is an active participant in their learning
• Use short explanations and practical examples
• Use number games to encourage number recognition i.e. Four in a row, Snap, dominoes
• Incorporate informal number work at work with money and time (i.e. have their own watch, alarm clock, piggy bank)
• Avoid creating anxiety for the child
• Identify the child’s preferred learning style
• Teach more than one way to solve problems in maths
• Use their existing knowledge
• Concentrate on one concept at a time
• Encourage children to visualize mathematical problems. Encourage children to draw the problem
• When teaching new mathematical skills ensure that the problems are free of large numbers and unnecessary calculations
• Provide examples
• Provide plenty of opportunities for practice and consolidation
• Encourage students to teach a concept back in order to check understanding
• Directly teach the language of mathematics which differs from spoken English
• Use consistent mathematical language both in your classroom and throughout the school
• Make use of mnemonics and/or visual prompts to assist students in learning and remembering rules
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Dysgraphia
Dysgraphia has been described as a problem with expressing thoughts in written form, dysgraphia as a handwriting problem as a result of an inability to remember how to make certain letters or symbols.
Signs of dysgraphia
Dysgraphia is not simply sloppy handwriting. Children with this SLD can experience difficulties with many aspects of the writing process. However, these children can often exhibit high achievement in other subject areas (Richards, 1999).
Some of the common symptoms that learners with dysgraphia experience are
• Illegible handwriting
• Varied letter sizes and spacing
• Mixture of upper and lower case letters
• Odd writing grip
• Unfinished letters
• Incorrect letter formation
How to Support a child with dysgraphia• A mixture of cursive and print
• Inconsistent letter/word positioning on the paper
• Watching the hand while writing
• Talking to self when writing
• Reluctance or refusal to complete writing tasks
• Little imagination or thought put into writing tasks
• Odd wrist, paper and body positions while writing
• Misuse of lines and margins
• Many spelling mistakes
• Excessive erasing
• Illegible writing
• Pain when writing
• Poor organization of work
• Poor sentence or grammar structure
• Limited expression of ideas
Teaching strategies to support learners with dysgraphia
1. Activities that support the development of fine motor skills
2. Activities that support letter formation
3. Activities that support the development of pencil control
4. Activities that develop automatic letter writing
5. Activities for improving spelling
6. Activities for improving composition
7. Useful strategies to support children while writing
1. Activities that support the development of fine motor skills:
• playing with clay and playdough
• beading
• threading
• sewing
• lacing
• spooning marbles
• peg board activities
• use of clothes pegs/ tweezers/kitchen tongs
• making patterns with buttons/pom-poms
• attaching paper clips
• jigsaws
• construction straws
2. Activities that support letter formation:
• connecting dots or dashes to create complete letter forms
• creating letters in sand/playdough/water
• making the letter formations on different surfaces i.e. sandpaper, felt, plastic etc.
• use of ICT to practice letter formation
• copying letters from models
• tracing letters
• creating the letters using various materials (buttons, match sticks, pipe cleaners etc.)
• rainbow writing (repeated tracing of letters using different colours)
• writing on different surfaces (whiteboards, blackboards, paper etc.)
• writing with different implements (markers, chalk, pencils, crayons, tracing with water, tracing with paint etc.)
3. Activities that support the development of pencil control
• keeping lines within mazes
• tracing activities
• finish the pattern activities
4. Activities that develop automatic letter writing
• teacher modelling
• using numbered arrow cues for letter formation
• covering the letter and writing from memory
• writing the letter from memory after intervals (that increase over time)
• writing letters from dictation (spoken name to letter form).
• opportunities for daily practice
• application in meaningful contexts
5. Activities for improving spelling
• Explicit instruction
• Focus on spelling patterns and word families
• Look Say Cover Write Check method
• Initial focus on high frequency words
• Focus on words related to the topic being taught
• Children keep personal dictionaries with tricky spellings
• Play spelling games like boggle, scrabble, spell the most words etc.
• Practice weekly spelling in a variety of fun ways (write them with dominant hand, non-dominant hand, with your eyes closed etc.)
• Crosswords
• Wordsearches
• Spelling scavenger hunt
• Spelling bingo
• Build spellings with different materials (playdough, sand etc.)
• Word sort games based on spelling pattern of the week
• Spelling stairs (children practice writing the spelling one letter at a time)
• Create a story using all of the spellings (the funnier the better!)
• Spelling unscramble
• Word frames for spellings
6. Activities for improving composition
• Teaching planning, generating, reviewing/evaluating, and revising strategies explicitly
• Providing opportunities for children to practice these strategies
• compositions of different genres including narrative, informational, procedural and persuasive
• Providing opportunities for free writing
• Developing self-assessment strategies within pupils
• Shared writing with teacher
• Guided writing in groups
• Independent writing
• Exposure to a wide range of vocabulary to support writing on a particular topic
• Writing on topics of interest to the child
• Teacher modelling correct writing techniques
• Reading examples of good writing
7. Useful strategies to support children while writing
• Five finger story planning technique
• Story cubes
• Writing frames
• Story starters
• Writing/editing checklists
• Write based on a picture/ photograph/ event
General differentiation strategies for teaching learners with dysgraphia
• Minimise the amount of writing a pupil is required to do
• Encourage oral responses when possible.
• Use paper with lines that are raised; as a sensory guide to help the child.
• Try different pens and pencils to find one that the student is most comfortable working with.
• Use mind mapping, spider diagrams and concept maps.
• Differentiate and adapt written activities and worksheets to allow for success.
• Experiment with a variety of writing utensils (e.g. thick/fine-tip marker, use of grips on pencils, etc).
• Allow adequate time for completion of tasks.
• Break tasks into smaller, more achievable parts.
• Select and highlight most important errors-not all errors.
• Give regular constructive praise and encouragement and maintain high expectations.
• Limit copying from the board.
(SESS, n.d.)
Signs of dysgraphia
Dysgraphia is not simply sloppy handwriting. Children with this SLD can experience difficulties with many aspects of the writing process. However, these children can often exhibit high achievement in other subject areas (Richards, 1999).
Some of the common symptoms that learners with dysgraphia experience are
• Illegible handwriting
• Varied letter sizes and spacing
• Mixture of upper and lower case letters
• Odd writing grip
• Unfinished letters
• Incorrect letter formation
How to Support a child with dysgraphia• A mixture of cursive and print
• Inconsistent letter/word positioning on the paper
• Watching the hand while writing
• Talking to self when writing
• Reluctance or refusal to complete writing tasks
• Little imagination or thought put into writing tasks
• Odd wrist, paper and body positions while writing
• Misuse of lines and margins
• Many spelling mistakes
• Excessive erasing
• Illegible writing
• Pain when writing
• Poor organization of work
• Poor sentence or grammar structure
• Limited expression of ideas
Teaching strategies to support learners with dysgraphia
1. Activities that support the development of fine motor skills
2. Activities that support letter formation
3. Activities that support the development of pencil control
4. Activities that develop automatic letter writing
5. Activities for improving spelling
6. Activities for improving composition
7. Useful strategies to support children while writing
1. Activities that support the development of fine motor skills:
• playing with clay and playdough
• beading
• threading
• sewing
• lacing
• spooning marbles
• peg board activities
• use of clothes pegs/ tweezers/kitchen tongs
• making patterns with buttons/pom-poms
• attaching paper clips
• jigsaws
• construction straws
2. Activities that support letter formation:
• connecting dots or dashes to create complete letter forms
• creating letters in sand/playdough/water
• making the letter formations on different surfaces i.e. sandpaper, felt, plastic etc.
• use of ICT to practice letter formation
• copying letters from models
• tracing letters
• creating the letters using various materials (buttons, match sticks, pipe cleaners etc.)
• rainbow writing (repeated tracing of letters using different colours)
• writing on different surfaces (whiteboards, blackboards, paper etc.)
• writing with different implements (markers, chalk, pencils, crayons, tracing with water, tracing with paint etc.)
3. Activities that support the development of pencil control
• keeping lines within mazes
• tracing activities
• finish the pattern activities
4. Activities that develop automatic letter writing
• teacher modelling
• using numbered arrow cues for letter formation
• covering the letter and writing from memory
• writing the letter from memory after intervals (that increase over time)
• writing letters from dictation (spoken name to letter form).
• opportunities for daily practice
• application in meaningful contexts
5. Activities for improving spelling
• Explicit instruction
• Focus on spelling patterns and word families
• Look Say Cover Write Check method
• Initial focus on high frequency words
• Focus on words related to the topic being taught
• Children keep personal dictionaries with tricky spellings
• Play spelling games like boggle, scrabble, spell the most words etc.
• Practice weekly spelling in a variety of fun ways (write them with dominant hand, non-dominant hand, with your eyes closed etc.)
• Crosswords
• Wordsearches
• Spelling scavenger hunt
• Spelling bingo
• Build spellings with different materials (playdough, sand etc.)
• Word sort games based on spelling pattern of the week
• Spelling stairs (children practice writing the spelling one letter at a time)
• Create a story using all of the spellings (the funnier the better!)
• Spelling unscramble
• Word frames for spellings
6. Activities for improving composition
• Teaching planning, generating, reviewing/evaluating, and revising strategies explicitly
• Providing opportunities for children to practice these strategies
• compositions of different genres including narrative, informational, procedural and persuasive
• Providing opportunities for free writing
• Developing self-assessment strategies within pupils
• Shared writing with teacher
• Guided writing in groups
• Independent writing
• Exposure to a wide range of vocabulary to support writing on a particular topic
• Writing on topics of interest to the child
• Teacher modelling correct writing techniques
• Reading examples of good writing
7. Useful strategies to support children while writing
• Five finger story planning technique
• Story cubes
• Writing frames
• Story starters
• Writing/editing checklists
• Write based on a picture/ photograph/ event
General differentiation strategies for teaching learners with dysgraphia
• Minimise the amount of writing a pupil is required to do
• Encourage oral responses when possible.
• Use paper with lines that are raised; as a sensory guide to help the child.
• Try different pens and pencils to find one that the student is most comfortable working with.
• Use mind mapping, spider diagrams and concept maps.
• Differentiate and adapt written activities and worksheets to allow for success.
• Experiment with a variety of writing utensils (e.g. thick/fine-tip marker, use of grips on pencils, etc).
• Allow adequate time for completion of tasks.
• Break tasks into smaller, more achievable parts.
• Select and highlight most important errors-not all errors.
• Give regular constructive praise and encouragement and maintain high expectations.
• Limit copying from the board.
(SESS, n.d.)
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
ADHD is characterised by
• poor sustained attention
• impaired impulse control
• an inability to delay gratification
• excessive task-irrelevant activity
In a classroom situation, pupils with ADHD may
• often fidget with their hands or feet
• appear restless
• leave their seat
• run about
• climb excessively in situations where it is inappropriate
• Have difficulty playing or engaging in leisure activities quietly
• Talk excessively
• Find it difficult to plan and control their behaviour
• Seem unaware of danger and have a tendency to rush into things
• Find listening to, remembering and following through on instructions difficult
• Fail to finish school work
• Be reluctant to engage in activities that require prolonged effort
• Be easily distracted
• Have difficulty organising materials
• Be disliked by their peers because of their aggression and impulsiveness
• Be on medical treatment
• poor sustained attention
• impaired impulse control
• an inability to delay gratification
• excessive task-irrelevant activity
In a classroom situation, pupils with ADHD may
• often fidget with their hands or feet
• appear restless
• leave their seat
• run about
• climb excessively in situations where it is inappropriate
• Have difficulty playing or engaging in leisure activities quietly
• Talk excessively
• Find it difficult to plan and control their behaviour
• Seem unaware of danger and have a tendency to rush into things
• Find listening to, remembering and following through on instructions difficult
• Fail to finish school work
• Be reluctant to engage in activities that require prolonged effort
• Be easily distracted
• Have difficulty organising materials
• Be disliked by their peers because of their aggression and impulsiveness
• Be on medical treatment
Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD)
ADD is ADHD without the hyperactivity and is characterised by
• Excessive daydreaming
• Frequent staring
• Cognitive sluggishness
• Lethargy
• Confusion
• Memory problems
• Social reticence.
Pupils with ADD can often
• blurt out answers before questions have been completed
• have problems awaiting their turn
• interrupt or intrude on others.
To successfully teach pupils with ADHD/ADD
• Evaluate the pupil’s strength and needs.
• Select appropriate instructional strategies.
• Monitor their progress on a regular basis.
• Re-evaluate these strategies if necessary.
Teaching Strategies for ADHD and ADD
• Incorporate easy transitions between lessons.
• Use a clear signal to mark the end of one activity and the beginning of another.
• Encourage and praise appropriate behaviour.
• Pre-establish consequences for inappropriate behaviour.
• Provide regular, consistent and constructive feedback to the student.
• React to inappropriate behaviour by suggesting a positive alternative.
• Enforce classroom rules.
• Use rewards more than sanctions.
• Set targets with the student.
• Use concrete materials and ICT.
• Present new material in a structured way.
• Ensure you have the pupil’s attention before issuing instructions.
• Say his/her name first as a signal for the student to pay attention.
• Keep desk clear and free of distractions.
• Seat the student at the front to minimise opportunities for distraction.
• Minimise other distractions as much as possible.
• Seat among well-focused peers.
• Keeping instructions simple.
• Be consistent with daily instructions.
• Assign only one task at a time.
• Give extra time for tasks when necessary.
• Use teacher-modelling.
• Use a variety of learning and teaching resources that are motivating for the student.
• Interact with the student in a calm manner.
• Ensure classroom routines are predictable.
• Encourage the student to repeat to the teacher what needs to be done.
• Directly teach concentration skills and organisational skills.
• Provide supervision and monitor behaviour
• Use rewards and change them if they are not effective.
• Be patient
• Have a clearly displayed place for materials and books.
• Encourage peer tutoring and cooperative/collaborative learning.
• Avoid debating or arguing with the student.
• Maintain eye contact during verbal instructions.
• Use both verbal and visual directions.
• Provide opportunities for pupils to experience success.
• Encourage independence but keep in mind that these students may need more help for a longer period of time than the student without ADHD/ADD.
• Use a notebook to communicate daily with parents.
• Help the students feel comfortable with seeking assistance
• Modify assignments as necessary.
• Have a well-organised classroom
• Provide students with the maximum opportunities to learn
• Have high expectations of pupils
• Show enthusiasm and are energetic
• Use a variety of strategies to keep students on task, motivated and productive
• Present new material in a structured, systematic manner
• Directly and explicitly instruct
• Use clear and concise instructions
• Model effective ways of completing a task
• Monitor the pupils
• Question to determine understanding
• Differentiate instruction to suit individual needs
• Re-teach information when required
• Provide appropriate, frequent feedback
• Use a variety of resources
• Teach to suit different learning styles
• Use interactive, whole-class teaching methodologies
• Provide plenty of opportunities for practice
• Use lessons with strong visual input to hold attention
• Utilise computer-assisted learning where possible
• Teach self-management and organisational skills
• Praise students descriptively when praise is deserved
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Dyspraxia
Dyspraxia is a coordination disorder that effects fine and gross motor movements in children or adults. Those with dyspraxia generally have average or above average intelligence
Signs of dyspraxia
1. Movement and co-ordination
• Poor balance
• Poor fine and gross motor co-ordination
• Awkwardness in walking or running
• Trouble with hopping and skipping
• Difficulty riding a bike
• Poor posture
• Difficulty with throwing and catching a ball
• Poor awareness of body position in space
• Poor sense of direction
• Difficulty in hopping, skipping or riding a bike
• Sensitive to touch
• Confused about which hand to use
• Intolerance of having hair or teeth brushed, nails and hair cut
• Slow to learn to dress or feed themselves
• Find some clothes uncomfortable
• Difficulty with reading, writing
• Speech problems - slow to learn to speak and speech may be incoherent.
• Phobias or obsessive behaviour and impatient
• Difficult sitting up straight
• Difficulty tying shoe-laces, doing up buttons, using a fork and knife
• Difficulty opening lunch boxes
2. Concentration and learning
• Poor short term memory
• Short attention span – may struggle to remain on task for a long periods
• May benefit more from 1-1 teaching than whole class
• Can have problems copying from the board
• May not automatically pick up new skills, will learn through repetition
• Writing is laborious and immature
• Unable to remember or follow directions
Strategies for teaching children with dyspraxia
1. Handwriting difficulties
• Multi-sensory approaches to letter formation e.g. use of sand, sandpaper, rice trays, writing in the sky
• Pencil grips
• Stencils
• Use thicker pencils (particularly if child has a weak grasp)
• Ensure correct pencil grasp
• Tape or clip the paper to the desk
• Wrap an elastic band around wrist and top of the pencil (see below video)
• Practise writing on stomach (if child is moving whole hand when writing)
• Use of a slope desk (see image)
• Useful video for pencil grip:
2. Fine motor skills
• Suggest loose fit easy on and off clothes and Velcro fastenings
• Break down each task into smaller sections to be completed
• Use of play-dough or exercise putty
• Popping bubble wrap
• Wringing out a wet sponge
• Ripping small pieces of paper between thumb and index finger
• Helping with cooking
• Picking things up with tweezers or clothes pegs
• Pegboards
• Lego
• Threading and lacing
3. Gross motor skills
• Giving the child plenty of opportunity to run, hop, slide, swing
• Use a different variety of balls
• Rope games to develop balance, muscle tone and coordination
• Twister – great for developing balance and body awareness
• Use of balance or wobble boards
• Wobble cushion (See image)
• Give them time to practise a skill before beginning a sport
• Use slow moving balls e.g. foam balls
• Use of verbal cues
• Encourage participation in sports and hobbies e.g. scouts, swimming, drama, horse riding, arts and crafts, learning an instrument etc.
4. Concentration
• Allow child to choose activities which meet child’s own interests
• Avoid disturbing child when on task
• Keep ‘busy’ wall displays to a minimum
• Ensure desk is kept tidy
• Place child at the front of the classroom where possible
• Remove distractions within the child’s environment, limit noise and visual distracters.
Other considerations
• Ensure PE is not seen as a competition
• Give short, clear instructions
• Give visual cues where possible
• Provide extra time to complete activities
• Ensure furniture is at correct height
• Give positive feedback
• Use of coloured dots beside each line or writing on the board can help with tracking
• Use a buddy system (may also help with social skills issues)
• Provide visual timetables to assist with poor organisation (see image)
• Use of social stories may be necessary to teach social skills
• Permit time out if child is becoming over-stimulated
Signs of dyspraxia
1. Movement and co-ordination
• Poor balance
• Poor fine and gross motor co-ordination
• Awkwardness in walking or running
• Trouble with hopping and skipping
• Difficulty riding a bike
• Poor posture
• Difficulty with throwing and catching a ball
• Poor awareness of body position in space
• Poor sense of direction
• Difficulty in hopping, skipping or riding a bike
• Sensitive to touch
• Confused about which hand to use
• Intolerance of having hair or teeth brushed, nails and hair cut
• Slow to learn to dress or feed themselves
• Find some clothes uncomfortable
• Difficulty with reading, writing
• Speech problems - slow to learn to speak and speech may be incoherent.
• Phobias or obsessive behaviour and impatient
• Difficult sitting up straight
• Difficulty tying shoe-laces, doing up buttons, using a fork and knife
• Difficulty opening lunch boxes
2. Concentration and learning
• Poor short term memory
• Short attention span – may struggle to remain on task for a long periods
• May benefit more from 1-1 teaching than whole class
• Can have problems copying from the board
• May not automatically pick up new skills, will learn through repetition
• Writing is laborious and immature
• Unable to remember or follow directions
Strategies for teaching children with dyspraxia
1. Handwriting difficulties
• Multi-sensory approaches to letter formation e.g. use of sand, sandpaper, rice trays, writing in the sky
• Pencil grips
• Stencils
• Use thicker pencils (particularly if child has a weak grasp)
• Ensure correct pencil grasp
• Tape or clip the paper to the desk
• Wrap an elastic band around wrist and top of the pencil (see below video)
• Practise writing on stomach (if child is moving whole hand when writing)
• Use of a slope desk (see image)
• Useful video for pencil grip:
2. Fine motor skills
• Suggest loose fit easy on and off clothes and Velcro fastenings
• Break down each task into smaller sections to be completed
• Use of play-dough or exercise putty
• Popping bubble wrap
• Wringing out a wet sponge
• Ripping small pieces of paper between thumb and index finger
• Helping with cooking
• Picking things up with tweezers or clothes pegs
• Pegboards
• Lego
• Threading and lacing
3. Gross motor skills
• Giving the child plenty of opportunity to run, hop, slide, swing
• Use a different variety of balls
• Rope games to develop balance, muscle tone and coordination
• Twister – great for developing balance and body awareness
• Use of balance or wobble boards
• Wobble cushion (See image)
• Give them time to practise a skill before beginning a sport
• Use slow moving balls e.g. foam balls
• Use of verbal cues
• Encourage participation in sports and hobbies e.g. scouts, swimming, drama, horse riding, arts and crafts, learning an instrument etc.
4. Concentration
• Allow child to choose activities which meet child’s own interests
• Avoid disturbing child when on task
• Keep ‘busy’ wall displays to a minimum
• Ensure desk is kept tidy
• Place child at the front of the classroom where possible
• Remove distractions within the child’s environment, limit noise and visual distracters.
Other considerations
• Ensure PE is not seen as a competition
• Give short, clear instructions
• Give visual cues where possible
• Provide extra time to complete activities
• Ensure furniture is at correct height
• Give positive feedback
• Use of coloured dots beside each line or writing on the board can help with tracking
• Use a buddy system (may also help with social skills issues)
• Provide visual timetables to assist with poor organisation (see image)
• Use of social stories may be necessary to teach social skills
• Permit time out if child is becoming over-stimulated
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Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)
ODD is a psychiatric disorder, categorised by a recurrence of negative, hostile and disobedient behaviour towards an authoritative person, for a period of more than 6 months
Angry/Irritable Mood
• Often loses temper.
• Is often touchy or easily annoyed.
• Is often angry and resentful.
Argumentative/Defiant Behaviour
• Often argues with authority figures or, for children and adolescents, with adults.
• Often actively defies or refuses to comply with requests from authority figures or with rules
• Often deliberately annoys others
• Often blames others for his or her mistakes or misbehaviour
Angry/Irritable Mood
• Often loses temper.
• Is often touchy or easily annoyed.
• Is often angry and resentful.
Argumentative/Defiant Behaviour
• Often argues with authority figures or, for children and adolescents, with adults.
• Often actively defies or refuses to comply with requests from authority figures or with rules
• Often deliberately annoys others
• Often blames others for his or her mistakes or misbehaviour
Emotional Behavioural Difficulties (EBD)
is a condition whereby emotional and behavioural difficulties affect the learning and social development of the child. The difficulties that children experience can range from mild to severe.
• violent physical aggression towards other students and towards teachers
• sustained and offensive verbal assault
• refusal to take part in classroom activities
• shouting, bullying and disrupting the classroom in a manner that does not respond to
• Repeated efforts on the school’s part to control such behaviour
• Throwing books, chairs and desks
• Consistently destroying their own work and the work of others
• Kicking, punching, biting
• Negative self-concept
• Frequently off task
• Problems working in groups
The following are strategies that can be useful for children with ODD, CD and EBD.
• Empathise with them, recognise that you are not the cause of the outbursts
• Help a child to recognise their emotions by pointing them out
• Involve the student in any plans to change behaviour so they take ownership too
• Actively teach social skills e.g. anger management, conflict resolution
• Choose to ignore somethings. At times you may need to ‘pick your battles’ and prioritise what needs to be focused upon. Target a few important behaviours.
• Recognise and reaffirm positive behaviours
• Allow students to help others in an area of their strength
• Develop class rules and a schedule so the child knows what to expect. It is important to establish clear expectations so the child understands what is expected of them.
• Visual timetable can be helpful
• Focus on the incident that happened rather than the student. Target a few or one behaviour and discuss the specific consequence for this behaviour.
• Remain calm and neutral and try not to raise your voice. If the child sees you as fair and consistent they are more likely to want to work with you
• At times it may be helpful for the teacher to take a break
• Connect with the child – find out their likes and dislikes and get them know them
• Do not allow the student an opportunity to argue, avoid getting involved in any power struggle.
• Give the child some classroom responsibilities so they feel involved in the class and a sense of control.
• Use of an ABC (Antecedent, behaviour, consequence) chart can be used to pinpoint the triggers that can cause a certain behaviour. The below chart indicates how an ABC chart would be used. This chart can help pinpoint what causes the behaviour and what consequence the child gets following the behaviour. Perhaps they get attention which is something they are craving.
• Provide student with a choice of outcome e.g. if they are playing with a toy when they shouldn’t it needs to go in their bag or on the teacher’s desk
• Ensure rules are specific and realistic – it may be necessary to prioritise them for the child
• Be consistent with rules and consequences. It is important that all people working with the child follow the same rules and consequences.
• Reward charts can be used as a motivational tool
• Reward the student after short periods of success
• Minimise transitions and distractions
• Act as a positive role model
• Help the child recognise the physiological signs of anger and agitation
• Keep in constant contact with the parents
• violent physical aggression towards other students and towards teachers
• sustained and offensive verbal assault
• refusal to take part in classroom activities
• shouting, bullying and disrupting the classroom in a manner that does not respond to
• Repeated efforts on the school’s part to control such behaviour
• Throwing books, chairs and desks
• Consistently destroying their own work and the work of others
• Kicking, punching, biting
• Negative self-concept
• Frequently off task
• Problems working in groups
The following are strategies that can be useful for children with ODD, CD and EBD.
• Empathise with them, recognise that you are not the cause of the outbursts
• Help a child to recognise their emotions by pointing them out
• Involve the student in any plans to change behaviour so they take ownership too
• Actively teach social skills e.g. anger management, conflict resolution
• Choose to ignore somethings. At times you may need to ‘pick your battles’ and prioritise what needs to be focused upon. Target a few important behaviours.
• Recognise and reaffirm positive behaviours
• Allow students to help others in an area of their strength
• Develop class rules and a schedule so the child knows what to expect. It is important to establish clear expectations so the child understands what is expected of them.
• Visual timetable can be helpful
• Focus on the incident that happened rather than the student. Target a few or one behaviour and discuss the specific consequence for this behaviour.
• Remain calm and neutral and try not to raise your voice. If the child sees you as fair and consistent they are more likely to want to work with you
• At times it may be helpful for the teacher to take a break
• Connect with the child – find out their likes and dislikes and get them know them
• Do not allow the student an opportunity to argue, avoid getting involved in any power struggle.
• Give the child some classroom responsibilities so they feel involved in the class and a sense of control.
• Use of an ABC (Antecedent, behaviour, consequence) chart can be used to pinpoint the triggers that can cause a certain behaviour. The below chart indicates how an ABC chart would be used. This chart can help pinpoint what causes the behaviour and what consequence the child gets following the behaviour. Perhaps they get attention which is something they are craving.
• Provide student with a choice of outcome e.g. if they are playing with a toy when they shouldn’t it needs to go in their bag or on the teacher’s desk
• Ensure rules are specific and realistic – it may be necessary to prioritise them for the child
• Be consistent with rules and consequences. It is important that all people working with the child follow the same rules and consequences.
• Reward charts can be used as a motivational tool
• Reward the student after short periods of success
• Minimise transitions and distractions
• Act as a positive role model
• Help the child recognise the physiological signs of anger and agitation
• Keep in constant contact with the parents
Down Syndrome
Down Syndrome (DS) is a genetic condition which is caused by the presence of an extra chromosome (SESS, N.D.). People with DS have an additional 21 chromosome, bringing their total chromosome count to 47 rather than 46. DS is present from birth and is a life-long condition. DS was first described by a doctor in London, Dr. John Langdon Down in 1866.
There are three different types of DS:
1. Trisomy 21 (95%) extra number 21 chromosomes in every cell.
2. Translocation (3-5%) extra chromosome 21 is attached to another chromosome in every cell.
3. Mosaic (1-2 %) mixture of cells, some with an extra chromosome 21 and some normal cells (SESS, ND).
Some of the common features of DS include:
• Cranio-facial anomalies,
• Auditory and visual impairment – leading to hearing and sight loss
• Poor short term auditory memory
• Short attention span
• Speech and language delay
• Delayed motor skills
• Increased incidence of various medical and sensory issues, including hearing, vision, heart and thyroid disorders heart defects, susceptibility to infection. (Bull et al, 2011)
• Strong visual awareness, use of sign and gesture
• Desire and ability to learn from their peers
Difficulties a child with DS may have:
1. Poor short term auditory memory
2. Poor motor skills
3. Poor concentration
4. Visual and hearing impairment
5. Speech and language difficulty
We will now explore these in greater detail.
1. Poor Short Term Auditory Memory:
Short-term auditory memory (working memory) refers to the ability to store and manipulate auditory information in our short term memory for a short period of time (DSI, NDb). An example of this would be remembering digits of a phone when moving to the phone and dialling it. Children with DS generally have poor short-term auditory memory. This difficulty with retaining information is generally not in line with their other abilities (Bower & Hayes, 1994). Therefore, children with DS may struggle with information that is presented to them orally. This may present itself in the classroom in various ways for example stories, discussion time, assemblies, mental maths etc. This can have an impact on
• vocabulary development
• mental computation and problem solving
• language comprehension
• listening skills (DSI, ND)
However, long term memory is generally not impacted and it is suggested that children with DS are better at storing information visually.
2. Impaired Motor Skills
Motor skills are actions we undertake in order to complete movement. They can be categorised into two groups: gross motor skills and fine motor skills. Gross motor skills are larger movements that involve use of most of the body e.g. running, jumping. Fine motor skills involve manipulation of the hands and fingers e.g. handwriting or picking items up.
Motors skill development of a child with DS are generally delayed in comparison to the motor skills of the typically developing child (Winders, 2001). These difficulties are generally due to poor muscle tone, decreased strength and loose joints. In order to achieve these motor skills children with DS need more practice and time to consolidate the actions (DSI, NDc). DSI (NDc) suggest that children with DS can occasionally develop compensatory actions in order to cope with the difficulties experienced, which can lead to an atypical development. Children with DS may attend occupational therapy or physical therapy outside of school. Difficulties with hearing and vision (as described below) may also impact on these fine motor skills. However, it is suggested that participation in PE is essential and their motor skills will improve with continued practice.
These motor difficulties may present themselves in various ways in the classroom:
• Difficulties in PE e.g. walking, running, jumping, hopping, dancing, swimming
• Climbing stairs
• Balance
• Handwriting difficulties – manipulating a pencil
• Using a scissors
• Maintaining posture in seat
• Difficulties with dressing
• Difficulties when eating e.g. manipulating cutlery, opening containers etc.
3. Poor concentration
Children with DS can also have poor concentration. This should not be seen as an indication of laziness. Rather it could be a combination of many things; lack of understanding of the task, medical issues, lack of sleep etc. (DSI, ND). It is also suggested that this is related to their difficulty understanding and processing oral information, as described above.
4. Visual Impairment and Hearing Impairment:
Visual Impairment
Children with DS are more likely to have problem with vision with 54% requiring glasses at some stage (DSI, NDd). Children can be short-sighted, this means they can focus on objects far away but can struggle to focus on objects that are up close. Whereas, long-sighted impacts on ability to focus on objects that are far away (e.g. the whiteboard). Other common eye disorders for children with DS include blepharitis (eye inflammation), strabismus (condition where the two eyes do not focus in the same direction), cataracts (clouding of the lens of the eye) and glaucoma (increased pressure of fluid in the eye). While eye disorders will be treated by a specialist optometrist it is important for teachers to be aware of potential poor vision in the classroom as it may impact their ability to see the board or access information given. Speaking to the parents would be important as they may have been given recommendations from the professional.
5. Speech and language difficulty:
As noted by the DSI (NDe) all children with DS will have speech and language impairments over and above what is in line with their intellectual ability. Development of speech and language skills are essential for the cognitive development of the child as words equate to knowledge. Language is also essential as it promotes thinking and reasoning. This ‘thinking and reasoning’ is something we do in our mind through ‘silent speech’. Therefore, any delay in language development can result in a delay in this cognitive processing. This can make it difficult for children to transfer skills from one situation to another, grasp concepts, problem solve and make decisions (DSI, NDe). Language is also essential for social development as it allows children to ask for what they need and want, share what feel or what they are worried about etc. (Buckley & Le Prèvost, 2002).
Strategies to support learners with DS in three areas
1. Language Acquisition
As mentioned in the previous lesson for most children with DS, language comprehension (understanding) is better than language production (talking/signing). This means that children with DS understand more than they can say. Receptive language ability (what is understood) can be two or three years ahead of expressive language ability (what can be said). For this reason, sometimes their intelligence can be underestimated. Working memory difficulties may contribute to the speech and language delays that children with DS often face, limiting the amount that a child can organise and say clearly in a sentence (Hughes, 2006). Additionally, as previously explored around 80% of children with DS have some form of hearing impairment (these may be permanent or transient).
Strategies to support language acquisition:
• When speaking, back up words with gestures e.g. finger to lips and “Shhh”.
• Use signs and reading activities to support all speech work.
• If appropriate, learn the Irish Sign Language or Lámh basic signs and teach them to the class. These can be used to support the language development of a learner with DS.
• Additionally, visual supports such as Picture exchange communication systems (PECS), as described in the previous module, augmentative and alternative communication technologies (AAC) and cued articulation may also be useful for individual children.
• Visual supports can be used to assist children while their developing speech is still difficult to understand. Pair pictures with spoken words when necessary.
• Print can be also be used to support language development from an early age, as many children with DS find written words easier to remember than spoken words.
Classroom signs to support children with DS (source google images)
• Use clear language and short sentences.
• Speak slowly and directly to the student and use appropriate facial expressions.
• Remind the child to slow down when speaking.
• Allow adequate time for children to respond. Children with DS can often require additional time to process language and formulate a response.
• Recognize that situational factors (such as an impatient listener, anxiety, perceived pressure, embarrassment, lack of confidence etc.) can impact their communication.
• Practise conversation by using labelled pictures, photos and sentence starters.
• All types of communication should be encouraged.
• Discuss topics that are of interest to the child.
• Use styles of conversation that will encourage them to expand on and develop their verbal contribution. Try to avoid closed questions that require only a one word answer.
Language Development to Support Learners with DS• Children develop language skills by imitating those around them, therefore, teachers should model appropriate use of language.
• Take advice from parents and speech therapists.
• Avoid saying that you don’t understand. This can be discouraging and embarrassing.
• Keep records of the child’s expressive and comprehension language abilities. Observe them and write down the gestures, signs and words that they ae familiar with. Checklists for oral vocabulary are available on the Down Syndrome Education International website (www.downsed.org)
• Listen and respond to all of the child’s communications.
• Create daily opportunities for them to make choices, share their news and express opinions.
• Repeat individually any instructions given to the class as a whole. Check the child has understood by asking them to repeat back what you have said.
• Give the child opportunities to practice their language in situations that are meaningful for them. Use games to make language practice fun.
• Reading can be used to support the development of language in learners with DS.
2. Reading
Language development is fundamental to any effective reading program and learners with DS experience significant delays in speech and language attainment. However, as children with DS are visual learners and the written word is a visual representation of language, reading can help these learners with speech, language literacy and memory development (Rondal & Buckley, 2003). Indeed, reading has many benefits for children with DS and it facilitates easier access to the school curriculum. In fact, Buckley (2002) states that “reading is one of the most powerful ways of helping children with Down syndrome to overcome their speech, language and cognitive delays”. There is significant variation in the reading levels attained by learners with DS, just as is the case in the general population. Reading can often by strength for learners with DS as they are visual learners and poor auditory ones. Therefore, it is an area of the curriculum in which they can achieve success. Reading makes language visible therefore can be easier than learning spoken language for these learners. However, teaching reading can improve the abovementioned oral language skills. Improving their reading skills has also been shown to improve:
• Working memory
• Verbal comprehension
• Grammar
• Vocabulary
• Problem solving skills
• Articulation and speech intelligibility
• Comprehension
Strategies to support reading:
• Reading cannot be taught until children have an appropriate comprehension of words and phrases. This is taught through communicating and interacting with the child. Reading activities can begin when a child understands 50- 100 words and can match and select pictures (e.g. picture lotto games). The same method used in these types of activities will be used to teach sight words (Hughes, 2006).
• All children, including those with DS, benefit from being read to and this can support their reading skills (Hughes, 2006). Exposure the printed word is hugely important for the process of learning to read. Foster a love of books and practise narrative skills, combined with activities to develop awareness of individual phonemes and letters.
• Reading books to children with DS also improves their listening and attention skills.
• Reading instruction for children should begin early as early intervention has been shown to be effective.
• It is important that the child’s reading programme is individualised and is designed to meet their individual learning style, ability, needs, and interest.
Strategies for sight vocabulary:
• Picture matching
• Picture selecting
• Picture naming
• Word to picture matching
• Word to word matching
• Naming (What does this say?)
• Selecting words upon request (i.e. give me “cat”)
• Games (i.e. snap, bingo, matching, go fish etc.)
• Picture matching cards (source google images)
There are three different types of DS:
1. Trisomy 21 (95%) extra number 21 chromosomes in every cell.
2. Translocation (3-5%) extra chromosome 21 is attached to another chromosome in every cell.
3. Mosaic (1-2 %) mixture of cells, some with an extra chromosome 21 and some normal cells (SESS, ND).
Some of the common features of DS include:
• Cranio-facial anomalies,
• Auditory and visual impairment – leading to hearing and sight loss
• Poor short term auditory memory
• Short attention span
• Speech and language delay
• Delayed motor skills
• Increased incidence of various medical and sensory issues, including hearing, vision, heart and thyroid disorders heart defects, susceptibility to infection. (Bull et al, 2011)
• Strong visual awareness, use of sign and gesture
• Desire and ability to learn from their peers
Difficulties a child with DS may have:
1. Poor short term auditory memory
2. Poor motor skills
3. Poor concentration
4. Visual and hearing impairment
5. Speech and language difficulty
We will now explore these in greater detail.
1. Poor Short Term Auditory Memory:
Short-term auditory memory (working memory) refers to the ability to store and manipulate auditory information in our short term memory for a short period of time (DSI, NDb). An example of this would be remembering digits of a phone when moving to the phone and dialling it. Children with DS generally have poor short-term auditory memory. This difficulty with retaining information is generally not in line with their other abilities (Bower & Hayes, 1994). Therefore, children with DS may struggle with information that is presented to them orally. This may present itself in the classroom in various ways for example stories, discussion time, assemblies, mental maths etc. This can have an impact on
• vocabulary development
• mental computation and problem solving
• language comprehension
• listening skills (DSI, ND)
However, long term memory is generally not impacted and it is suggested that children with DS are better at storing information visually.
2. Impaired Motor Skills
Motor skills are actions we undertake in order to complete movement. They can be categorised into two groups: gross motor skills and fine motor skills. Gross motor skills are larger movements that involve use of most of the body e.g. running, jumping. Fine motor skills involve manipulation of the hands and fingers e.g. handwriting or picking items up.
Motors skill development of a child with DS are generally delayed in comparison to the motor skills of the typically developing child (Winders, 2001). These difficulties are generally due to poor muscle tone, decreased strength and loose joints. In order to achieve these motor skills children with DS need more practice and time to consolidate the actions (DSI, NDc). DSI (NDc) suggest that children with DS can occasionally develop compensatory actions in order to cope with the difficulties experienced, which can lead to an atypical development. Children with DS may attend occupational therapy or physical therapy outside of school. Difficulties with hearing and vision (as described below) may also impact on these fine motor skills. However, it is suggested that participation in PE is essential and their motor skills will improve with continued practice.
These motor difficulties may present themselves in various ways in the classroom:
• Difficulties in PE e.g. walking, running, jumping, hopping, dancing, swimming
• Climbing stairs
• Balance
• Handwriting difficulties – manipulating a pencil
• Using a scissors
• Maintaining posture in seat
• Difficulties with dressing
• Difficulties when eating e.g. manipulating cutlery, opening containers etc.
3. Poor concentration
Children with DS can also have poor concentration. This should not be seen as an indication of laziness. Rather it could be a combination of many things; lack of understanding of the task, medical issues, lack of sleep etc. (DSI, ND). It is also suggested that this is related to their difficulty understanding and processing oral information, as described above.
4. Visual Impairment and Hearing Impairment:
Visual Impairment
Children with DS are more likely to have problem with vision with 54% requiring glasses at some stage (DSI, NDd). Children can be short-sighted, this means they can focus on objects far away but can struggle to focus on objects that are up close. Whereas, long-sighted impacts on ability to focus on objects that are far away (e.g. the whiteboard). Other common eye disorders for children with DS include blepharitis (eye inflammation), strabismus (condition where the two eyes do not focus in the same direction), cataracts (clouding of the lens of the eye) and glaucoma (increased pressure of fluid in the eye). While eye disorders will be treated by a specialist optometrist it is important for teachers to be aware of potential poor vision in the classroom as it may impact their ability to see the board or access information given. Speaking to the parents would be important as they may have been given recommendations from the professional.
5. Speech and language difficulty:
As noted by the DSI (NDe) all children with DS will have speech and language impairments over and above what is in line with their intellectual ability. Development of speech and language skills are essential for the cognitive development of the child as words equate to knowledge. Language is also essential as it promotes thinking and reasoning. This ‘thinking and reasoning’ is something we do in our mind through ‘silent speech’. Therefore, any delay in language development can result in a delay in this cognitive processing. This can make it difficult for children to transfer skills from one situation to another, grasp concepts, problem solve and make decisions (DSI, NDe). Language is also essential for social development as it allows children to ask for what they need and want, share what feel or what they are worried about etc. (Buckley & Le Prèvost, 2002).
Strategies to support learners with DS in three areas
1. Language Acquisition
As mentioned in the previous lesson for most children with DS, language comprehension (understanding) is better than language production (talking/signing). This means that children with DS understand more than they can say. Receptive language ability (what is understood) can be two or three years ahead of expressive language ability (what can be said). For this reason, sometimes their intelligence can be underestimated. Working memory difficulties may contribute to the speech and language delays that children with DS often face, limiting the amount that a child can organise and say clearly in a sentence (Hughes, 2006). Additionally, as previously explored around 80% of children with DS have some form of hearing impairment (these may be permanent or transient).
Strategies to support language acquisition:
• When speaking, back up words with gestures e.g. finger to lips and “Shhh”.
• Use signs and reading activities to support all speech work.
• If appropriate, learn the Irish Sign Language or Lámh basic signs and teach them to the class. These can be used to support the language development of a learner with DS.
• Additionally, visual supports such as Picture exchange communication systems (PECS), as described in the previous module, augmentative and alternative communication technologies (AAC) and cued articulation may also be useful for individual children.
• Visual supports can be used to assist children while their developing speech is still difficult to understand. Pair pictures with spoken words when necessary.
• Print can be also be used to support language development from an early age, as many children with DS find written words easier to remember than spoken words.
Classroom signs to support children with DS (source google images)
• Use clear language and short sentences.
• Speak slowly and directly to the student and use appropriate facial expressions.
• Remind the child to slow down when speaking.
• Allow adequate time for children to respond. Children with DS can often require additional time to process language and formulate a response.
• Recognize that situational factors (such as an impatient listener, anxiety, perceived pressure, embarrassment, lack of confidence etc.) can impact their communication.
• Practise conversation by using labelled pictures, photos and sentence starters.
• All types of communication should be encouraged.
• Discuss topics that are of interest to the child.
• Use styles of conversation that will encourage them to expand on and develop their verbal contribution. Try to avoid closed questions that require only a one word answer.
Language Development to Support Learners with DS• Children develop language skills by imitating those around them, therefore, teachers should model appropriate use of language.
• Take advice from parents and speech therapists.
• Avoid saying that you don’t understand. This can be discouraging and embarrassing.
• Keep records of the child’s expressive and comprehension language abilities. Observe them and write down the gestures, signs and words that they ae familiar with. Checklists for oral vocabulary are available on the Down Syndrome Education International website (www.downsed.org)
• Listen and respond to all of the child’s communications.
• Create daily opportunities for them to make choices, share their news and express opinions.
• Repeat individually any instructions given to the class as a whole. Check the child has understood by asking them to repeat back what you have said.
• Give the child opportunities to practice their language in situations that are meaningful for them. Use games to make language practice fun.
• Reading can be used to support the development of language in learners with DS.
2. Reading
Language development is fundamental to any effective reading program and learners with DS experience significant delays in speech and language attainment. However, as children with DS are visual learners and the written word is a visual representation of language, reading can help these learners with speech, language literacy and memory development (Rondal & Buckley, 2003). Indeed, reading has many benefits for children with DS and it facilitates easier access to the school curriculum. In fact, Buckley (2002) states that “reading is one of the most powerful ways of helping children with Down syndrome to overcome their speech, language and cognitive delays”. There is significant variation in the reading levels attained by learners with DS, just as is the case in the general population. Reading can often by strength for learners with DS as they are visual learners and poor auditory ones. Therefore, it is an area of the curriculum in which they can achieve success. Reading makes language visible therefore can be easier than learning spoken language for these learners. However, teaching reading can improve the abovementioned oral language skills. Improving their reading skills has also been shown to improve:
• Working memory
• Verbal comprehension
• Grammar
• Vocabulary
• Problem solving skills
• Articulation and speech intelligibility
• Comprehension
Strategies to support reading:
• Reading cannot be taught until children have an appropriate comprehension of words and phrases. This is taught through communicating and interacting with the child. Reading activities can begin when a child understands 50- 100 words and can match and select pictures (e.g. picture lotto games). The same method used in these types of activities will be used to teach sight words (Hughes, 2006).
• All children, including those with DS, benefit from being read to and this can support their reading skills (Hughes, 2006). Exposure the printed word is hugely important for the process of learning to read. Foster a love of books and practise narrative skills, combined with activities to develop awareness of individual phonemes and letters.
• Reading books to children with DS also improves their listening and attention skills.
• Reading instruction for children should begin early as early intervention has been shown to be effective.
• It is important that the child’s reading programme is individualised and is designed to meet their individual learning style, ability, needs, and interest.
Strategies for sight vocabulary:
• Picture matching
• Picture selecting
• Picture naming
• Word to picture matching
• Word to word matching
• Naming (What does this say?)
• Selecting words upon request (i.e. give me “cat”)
• Games (i.e. snap, bingo, matching, go fish etc.)
• Picture matching cards (source google images)
|
Multi-sensory methods of teaching phonics
The teaching of phonological awareness should similarly not be neglected. This refers to an individual's overt knowledge of the sound structure of language. This can be taught through activities such as syllable segmentation, rhyming, phonemic awareness etc. Ideas for further activities can be found here http://www.pdst.ie/sites/default/files/Phonological%20Awareness%20Infants.pdf |
• Regular evaluation of pupil reading progress is important to determine if teaching strategies are effective or if the programme of instruction needs to be adapted.
• Choice of reading materials is also important. Choose materials that are of interest to the learner and are at an instructional level. If the reading material is too difficult it can be damaging for the child’s self-esteem. The font size of the book should also be appropriate.
• There are two reading programmes especially designed for children who have DS. These are SEE and LEARN, which is an excellent sight word resource and The READING and LANGUAGE INTERVENTION programme (RLI). This is suitable for children from late 1st class and 2nd class onwards
Other reading resources for learners with DS:
(from: https://downsyndrome.ie/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Supporting-Children-with-Down-syndrome-in-Primary-School.pdf)
• Typing programmes e.g. Nessy Fingers, typingweb.com, ninjatyping
• Story Creator, Clicker
• Websites like dseinternational.org
• STRANDS----Strategies for Teachers to Respond Actively to the Needs of Children with Down Syndrome is available from Mary Immaculate College of Education at the University of Limerick
• Down Syndrome- What’s it all about’ booklet (available from DSI national office)
Downloadable reading resources
• First Keys 2. Early Literacy skills. Widgit Software Limited.
• On the Farm. Early literacy skills. Inclusive Technology.
• Oxford Reading Tree, Stage2 and 3. Word, sentence and text-level activities. Oxford University Press.
• Speaking for Myself. Early language development in education. Topologika Software Limited.
• Making Tracks to Literacy. Early literacy and prereading activities. Widgit Software Limited.
• WordShark 2. Reading and spelling games. White Space Limited.
• Wellington Square. Reading skills for school-age children. Semerc/Granada Learning.
• Teach your monster to read
• Choice of reading materials is also important. Choose materials that are of interest to the learner and are at an instructional level. If the reading material is too difficult it can be damaging for the child’s self-esteem. The font size of the book should also be appropriate.
• There are two reading programmes especially designed for children who have DS. These are SEE and LEARN, which is an excellent sight word resource and The READING and LANGUAGE INTERVENTION programme (RLI). This is suitable for children from late 1st class and 2nd class onwards
Other reading resources for learners with DS:
(from: https://downsyndrome.ie/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Supporting-Children-with-Down-syndrome-in-Primary-School.pdf)
• Typing programmes e.g. Nessy Fingers, typingweb.com, ninjatyping
• Story Creator, Clicker
• Websites like dseinternational.org
• STRANDS----Strategies for Teachers to Respond Actively to the Needs of Children with Down Syndrome is available from Mary Immaculate College of Education at the University of Limerick
• Down Syndrome- What’s it all about’ booklet (available from DSI national office)
Downloadable reading resources
• First Keys 2. Early Literacy skills. Widgit Software Limited.
• On the Farm. Early literacy skills. Inclusive Technology.
• Oxford Reading Tree, Stage2 and 3. Word, sentence and text-level activities. Oxford University Press.
• Speaking for Myself. Early language development in education. Topologika Software Limited.
• Making Tracks to Literacy. Early literacy and prereading activities. Widgit Software Limited.
• WordShark 2. Reading and spelling games. White Space Limited.
• Wellington Square. Reading skills for school-age children. Semerc/Granada Learning.
• Teach your monster to read
3. Writing
Classroom activities involving writing can be difficult for children with DS as a result of the various processes that must occur at one time in order to create sentences that make sense. These children can benefit from additional structure and writing supports in all writing activities. Additionally, poor motor skill development will slow the process of learning to write but using different mediums e.g. whiteboard and markers, chalkboard and chalk, wet sand, big crayons, paint programme on the computer will all help to make writing more interesting and possible.
Strategies to support writing development:
• Support of a pencil grip
• Use of a larger sized pencil
• Select appropriate paper size to the child’s fine motor abilities.
• Practise tracing/ pencil control activities
• Use of a writing slope if necessar
Strategies for language Development to Support Learners with DS• The pale blue lines in copy books can be difficult for these children to see. A black marker pen on thick black lines is needed.
• Use marker pens, rather than pencils. Introduce these learners to typing relatively early (2nd or 3rd class).
• Writing in all contexts needs scaffolding ( i.e. use of writing frames or sentence starters).
• Development of handwriting skills may be supported by a program of targeted fine motor exercises, which can be practiced both at home and in school.
Classroom activities involving writing can be difficult for children with DS as a result of the various processes that must occur at one time in order to create sentences that make sense. These children can benefit from additional structure and writing supports in all writing activities. Additionally, poor motor skill development will slow the process of learning to write but using different mediums e.g. whiteboard and markers, chalkboard and chalk, wet sand, big crayons, paint programme on the computer will all help to make writing more interesting and possible.
Strategies to support writing development:
• Support of a pencil grip
• Use of a larger sized pencil
• Select appropriate paper size to the child’s fine motor abilities.
• Practise tracing/ pencil control activities
• Use of a writing slope if necessar
Strategies for language Development to Support Learners with DS• The pale blue lines in copy books can be difficult for these children to see. A black marker pen on thick black lines is needed.
• Use marker pens, rather than pencils. Introduce these learners to typing relatively early (2nd or 3rd class).
• Writing in all contexts needs scaffolding ( i.e. use of writing frames or sentence starters).
• Development of handwriting skills may be supported by a program of targeted fine motor exercises, which can be practiced both at home and in school.
The SESS (NDb) outline various difficulties a child with DS may experience in Mathematics. These include:
• Difficulties from the visual-spatial impairment of numbers e.g. 6 and 9, 71 and 17
• Counting past a given number
• Organising information for problem solving
• Evaluating answers to check for errors
• Directional aspects of maths e.g. number lines, alignment of number
• Handling of small manipulatives can be difficult due to impairments in fine motor skills
• Mental maths will be difficult due to poor working memory
Strategies:
• Lots of experience of numbers e.g. counting real objects aloud, referencing numbers playing board games, cooking etc.
• Using money in real life and practice situations
• Using calendars to help notice the passing of time
• Draw attention to numbers e.g. on TV, sports or general routines
• Use of visual supports e.g. number line, hundred square, concrete materials (see below image)
• Teaching the language of mathematics: mathematical terminology needs explicitly focused upon
Numbers• End with "How many?" to encourage repetition of last count word to teach cardinality
• Play counting games that start at numbers other than one, once set has been counted, to prepare for addition and counting on
• Explicit teaching of problem solving skills
• Sorting and matching activities
• Matching digit cards of numerals to objects
• Sharing items equally
• Learning ordinality - that each number's position in the counting sequence is fixed and that each next number is one more equal unit
• Learning patterns, sequences
• Comparing objects based on size, colour, shape
The shape of the numbers also allows children to readily identify even numbers or odd numbers.
Children physically manipulate number shapes, build numbers, and play games in order to gain an understanding of number. There are various reasons why numicon is beneficial for children with DS.
• It is a visual representation of numbers
• It is a multi-sensory approach to numbers
• Children can manipulate the materials themselves
• It is engaging and can be used in a variety of ways
The SESS (ND) recommend teaching mathematical skills in the following order to children with DS:
1. Sorting and matching like objects by colour, size and shape
2. Rote counting objects from 1-10
3. Counting up to 10 objects in a row
4. Associating numerals with the written words, spoken words and appropriate amounts
5. Selecting up to 5 objects from a set of 10
6. Matching numerals 1-5
7. Selecting numeral 1-5 on request
8. Sequencing numerals 1-5 in correct order
9. Sequencing amounts 1-5 in correct order
10. Identifying and selecting correct numeral on request
11. Labelling amounts 1-5 with correct numeraln
12. Copying numerals 1-5 on request
13. Repeating items (v) - (xii)
14. Using numerals 1-10
15. Counting left to right using 1:1 correspondence
16. Organising materials so they can be counted accurately
17. One digit addition e.g. 3+4
18. Counting objects to 20
19. Subtracting one digit e.g. 4-2
1. Tips to improve the physical classroom environment to support learners with DS:
• Place the student at the front of the class.
• Use visual aids (e.g., write on the board/ signs/ pictures).
• Use larger font when presenting written information.
• Have a quiet area or “safe space” available in the classroom.
• These pupils may be shorter and physically smaller than their peers, therefore, may need a stool to assist the student to reach benches, pegs and toilets etc.
• Keep background noise to a minimum.
• Minimise distractions.
• Use a radio aid if possible as they can have hearing impairments.
• Seat a pupil with DS near others who will stay on-task and model good behaviour and classroom practice.
2. When speaking:
• Ensure you have the student’s attention and they are focused on you.
• Prepare them for listening. Cue them by using their name when giving an instruction or asking a question.
• Speak directly to the student and supplement with signs, gestures or expressions.
• Model slow, clear speaking.
• Face the student when speaking directly to them, make frequent eye contact.
• Encourage the pupil to make eye contact with you by reminding them or giving them a visual cue (i.e. pointing towards your eyes)
• Wait and give them extra time to process instructions, think and formulate responses.
• Use positive statements (for example “Walk in the classroom” rather than “Don’t run in the classroom”).
• Use “first, then” statements.
3. General strategies for teaching learners with DS:
• Use gesture/signs/visual cues to reinforce information.
• Place a strong emphasis on visual learning using demonstrations, pictures and illustrations.
• Rephrase and repeat questions or instructions often.
• Ask the student to repeat or rephrase instructions to determine understanding.
• Provide plenty of praise and positive reinforcement.
• Break tasks done to smaller steps.
• Reduce the complexity and size of the task.
• Use ICT when possible. It can be effective because it is interactive, self-paced, and nonthreatening.
• Explain new vocabulary before teaching a topic.
• Pre-teach new material in a quiet setting (perhaps this can be done during learning support/ resource time)
Rehearsal• Teach strategies for rehearsal techniques. Repetition is key for learning.
• Use multi-sensory approaches.
• Use concrete materials to support teaching.
• Active learning strategies should be utilised when possible.
• Keep activities short as pupils with DS may have a short attention span.
• Begin with what the child can do and knows.
• Vary teaching methodologies and activities.
• Present only a few stimuli or objects at a time to avoid confusion.
• Use a buddy system so that learners with DS have additional support if they missed an instruction.
• Give clear signals at the end of one activity and at the beginning of another.
• If the pupil makes a mistake, do not say "that is wrong." Ask them to try again or provide the correct response and as them to repeat this immediately. Immediate corrective feedback is more effective than delayed feedback.
• Be flexible with educational goals. If the student has difficulty writing with a pencil, teach the student to write using a computer.
• Have high expectations for these learners.
• Use their strengths to support their learning.
• Do not allow the learner to become dependent on someone following excessive one-to-one support.
Other techniques• Reward independence.
• Liaise closely with the speech therapist and occupational therapist working with the child.
• Communication with parents is very important.
• Use well structured, small-group learning situations.
• Allow extra time for pupils to complete tasks.
• Provide them with extra opportunities to learn information.
• Give pupils more freedom to choose their learning activities.
• Large group and whole class instruction can often be less effective for these learners.
• Provide breaks between lessons.
4. Social skills and behaviour:
• Students with DS generally demonstrate good social skills, which can be utilized to increase learning and teaching opportunities
• Provide opportunities for collaborative learning opportunities with other pupils who can act as appropriate role models. This also fosters an atmosphere of inclusion within the classroom.
• Regular ‘facilitated’ playtimes can also be organised to support social inclusion.
• Set and explicitly teach rules, boundaries and routines. Ensure that the child understands them.
• Prepare the child for changes to routine.
• Always look for the cause of or trigger for the behaviour.
• View behaviour as a form of communication.
• Share rules with parents to encourage consistency.
5. Strategies for teaching PE:
• Muscle development can require repetitive training.
• Focus on completing one task at a time.
• Avoid situations that set them up for failure. Ensure they experience success.
• Provide increased opportunities for practise.
• Work with physical therapists to identify and improve specific muscle development needs.
• To support fine motor development, use wrist and finger strengthening activities.
• Multisensory activities and materials work well.
6. Useful applications for learners with DS
• Special words
• Special stories
• Match and find
• My 1st Signs
• Touch Apps
• LetterSchool
• TeachMe
• Auditory Workout
• BrainShake 2
• Fun with Directions
• Difficulties from the visual-spatial impairment of numbers e.g. 6 and 9, 71 and 17
• Counting past a given number
• Organising information for problem solving
• Evaluating answers to check for errors
• Directional aspects of maths e.g. number lines, alignment of number
• Handling of small manipulatives can be difficult due to impairments in fine motor skills
• Mental maths will be difficult due to poor working memory
Strategies:
• Lots of experience of numbers e.g. counting real objects aloud, referencing numbers playing board games, cooking etc.
• Using money in real life and practice situations
• Using calendars to help notice the passing of time
• Draw attention to numbers e.g. on TV, sports or general routines
• Use of visual supports e.g. number line, hundred square, concrete materials (see below image)
• Teaching the language of mathematics: mathematical terminology needs explicitly focused upon
Numbers• End with "How many?" to encourage repetition of last count word to teach cardinality
• Play counting games that start at numbers other than one, once set has been counted, to prepare for addition and counting on
• Explicit teaching of problem solving skills
• Sorting and matching activities
• Matching digit cards of numerals to objects
• Sharing items equally
• Learning ordinality - that each number's position in the counting sequence is fixed and that each next number is one more equal unit
• Learning patterns, sequences
• Comparing objects based on size, colour, shape
The shape of the numbers also allows children to readily identify even numbers or odd numbers.
Children physically manipulate number shapes, build numbers, and play games in order to gain an understanding of number. There are various reasons why numicon is beneficial for children with DS.
• It is a visual representation of numbers
• It is a multi-sensory approach to numbers
• Children can manipulate the materials themselves
• It is engaging and can be used in a variety of ways
The SESS (ND) recommend teaching mathematical skills in the following order to children with DS:
1. Sorting and matching like objects by colour, size and shape
2. Rote counting objects from 1-10
3. Counting up to 10 objects in a row
4. Associating numerals with the written words, spoken words and appropriate amounts
5. Selecting up to 5 objects from a set of 10
6. Matching numerals 1-5
7. Selecting numeral 1-5 on request
8. Sequencing numerals 1-5 in correct order
9. Sequencing amounts 1-5 in correct order
10. Identifying and selecting correct numeral on request
11. Labelling amounts 1-5 with correct numeraln
12. Copying numerals 1-5 on request
13. Repeating items (v) - (xii)
14. Using numerals 1-10
15. Counting left to right using 1:1 correspondence
16. Organising materials so they can be counted accurately
17. One digit addition e.g. 3+4
18. Counting objects to 20
19. Subtracting one digit e.g. 4-2
1. Tips to improve the physical classroom environment to support learners with DS:
• Place the student at the front of the class.
• Use visual aids (e.g., write on the board/ signs/ pictures).
• Use larger font when presenting written information.
• Have a quiet area or “safe space” available in the classroom.
• These pupils may be shorter and physically smaller than their peers, therefore, may need a stool to assist the student to reach benches, pegs and toilets etc.
• Keep background noise to a minimum.
• Minimise distractions.
• Use a radio aid if possible as they can have hearing impairments.
• Seat a pupil with DS near others who will stay on-task and model good behaviour and classroom practice.
2. When speaking:
• Ensure you have the student’s attention and they are focused on you.
• Prepare them for listening. Cue them by using their name when giving an instruction or asking a question.
• Speak directly to the student and supplement with signs, gestures or expressions.
• Model slow, clear speaking.
• Face the student when speaking directly to them, make frequent eye contact.
• Encourage the pupil to make eye contact with you by reminding them or giving them a visual cue (i.e. pointing towards your eyes)
• Wait and give them extra time to process instructions, think and formulate responses.
• Use positive statements (for example “Walk in the classroom” rather than “Don’t run in the classroom”).
• Use “first, then” statements.
3. General strategies for teaching learners with DS:
• Use gesture/signs/visual cues to reinforce information.
• Place a strong emphasis on visual learning using demonstrations, pictures and illustrations.
• Rephrase and repeat questions or instructions often.
• Ask the student to repeat or rephrase instructions to determine understanding.
• Provide plenty of praise and positive reinforcement.
• Break tasks done to smaller steps.
• Reduce the complexity and size of the task.
• Use ICT when possible. It can be effective because it is interactive, self-paced, and nonthreatening.
• Explain new vocabulary before teaching a topic.
• Pre-teach new material in a quiet setting (perhaps this can be done during learning support/ resource time)
Rehearsal• Teach strategies for rehearsal techniques. Repetition is key for learning.
• Use multi-sensory approaches.
• Use concrete materials to support teaching.
• Active learning strategies should be utilised when possible.
• Keep activities short as pupils with DS may have a short attention span.
• Begin with what the child can do and knows.
• Vary teaching methodologies and activities.
• Present only a few stimuli or objects at a time to avoid confusion.
• Use a buddy system so that learners with DS have additional support if they missed an instruction.
• Give clear signals at the end of one activity and at the beginning of another.
• If the pupil makes a mistake, do not say "that is wrong." Ask them to try again or provide the correct response and as them to repeat this immediately. Immediate corrective feedback is more effective than delayed feedback.
• Be flexible with educational goals. If the student has difficulty writing with a pencil, teach the student to write using a computer.
• Have high expectations for these learners.
• Use their strengths to support their learning.
• Do not allow the learner to become dependent on someone following excessive one-to-one support.
Other techniques• Reward independence.
• Liaise closely with the speech therapist and occupational therapist working with the child.
• Communication with parents is very important.
• Use well structured, small-group learning situations.
• Allow extra time for pupils to complete tasks.
• Provide them with extra opportunities to learn information.
• Give pupils more freedom to choose their learning activities.
• Large group and whole class instruction can often be less effective for these learners.
• Provide breaks between lessons.
4. Social skills and behaviour:
• Students with DS generally demonstrate good social skills, which can be utilized to increase learning and teaching opportunities
• Provide opportunities for collaborative learning opportunities with other pupils who can act as appropriate role models. This also fosters an atmosphere of inclusion within the classroom.
• Regular ‘facilitated’ playtimes can also be organised to support social inclusion.
• Set and explicitly teach rules, boundaries and routines. Ensure that the child understands them.
• Prepare the child for changes to routine.
• Always look for the cause of or trigger for the behaviour.
• View behaviour as a form of communication.
• Share rules with parents to encourage consistency.
5. Strategies for teaching PE:
• Muscle development can require repetitive training.
• Focus on completing one task at a time.
• Avoid situations that set them up for failure. Ensure they experience success.
• Provide increased opportunities for practise.
• Work with physical therapists to identify and improve specific muscle development needs.
• To support fine motor development, use wrist and finger strengthening activities.
• Multisensory activities and materials work well.
6. Useful applications for learners with DS
• Special words
• Special stories
• Match and find
• My 1st Signs
• Touch Apps
• LetterSchool
• TeachMe
• Auditory Workout
• BrainShake 2
• Fun with Directions
Giftedness
What is giftedness?
Giftedness may be thought of as asynchronous development. This suggests that gifted children are on a developmental trajectory that is outside of norms from infancy onward. They reach recognized milestones of development on a schedule that is unique to them, putting them out of sync with society's expectations. In addition, they may be out of sync internally, with cognitive, social and emotional development on separate and sometimes quite different timetables
Children capable of high-performance include those with demonstrated achievement and/or potential ability in any of the following areas, singularly or in combination:
• General intellectual ability or talent
• Specific academic aptitude or talent
• Visual and performing arts and sports
• Leadership ability
• Creative and productive thinking
• Mechanical ingenuity
• Special abilities in empathy, understanding and negotiation (NCCA, 2007, p. 8).
Identification of Exceptionally Able Pupils
While there are many different approaches to the identification and assessment of exceptionally able students, it is important to note that the most holistic approach is one that uses a combination of methods. Assessment could include:
• Observation
• Parent/Guardian Referral
• Peer referral
• Self-referral
• Referral by others
• Teacher referral
• Identification by psychologists
• General checklist
• Subject Specific Checklists
How to differentiate for the Gifted Child
At a whole school level (NCCA, 1999)
• The SEN co-ordinator should endeavour to raise knowledge and awareness of exceptionally able children.
• Teachers should be made aware how to recognise children who are exceptionally able.
• Teachers should have high expectations of children who are exceptionally able
• Link with partner schools to ensure smooth transition from one school to the next
• Liase with parents
• Ensure SEN policies make reference to children who are gifted
• A useful audit of current school practices in relation to the gifted child can be found here on page 56
Use of ICTICT can be an effective method of differentiating the gifted child:
• ICT can allow children who are gifted to progress at their own pace (differentiation by pace)
• ICT allows for various learning styles
• ICT also develops higher order thinking skills e.g. researching, communicating etc.
• ICT gives children up to date information on a vast array of topics of interest
• ICT allows for collaborative learning experiences
Ideas for the use of ICT:
English:
• Reading eggs allows for individuals to work at their own individual level on a variety of literacy tasks https://readingeggs.com/
• Cybraryman – variety of word games http://cybraryman.com/words.html
• Storybird – Creating stories online https://storybird.com/
SESE
• Research of SESE projects can be carried out online and presented in a variety of ways e.g. Word, Powerpoint, Prezi https://prezi.com , Visme https://www.visme.co/ , Microsoft Note etc.
• http://dohistory.org/
• http://www.criticalpast.com/
• http://www.worldatlas.com/aatlas/world.htm
• http://docs.google.com/present/view?id=dhn2vcv5_175fp5qg9d3 Using google earth in the classroom
Maths
• http://www.mathletics.com/
• http://jmathpage.com/
• http://www.mathsweek.ie/resources/index.html
• http://nrich.maths.org/public/
• http://www.cut-the-knot.org/collection.shtml
Extra-curricularMusic
• https://www.noteflight.com/
• https://flat.io/
• https://onlinesequencer.net/
Differentiation:
Keep the child at the same level but differentiate the material they are given in various ways.
• Task
• Tasks can be set relating to the same activity. Exceptionally able students can begin at a higher level, miss the first activities or move through the work at an increased rate.
• Taking advantage of real life experiences to encourage problem solving e.g. snowstorm.
• Team teaching with colleagues can allow for differentiation within the classroom setting.
• ‘Students’ as experts strategy whereby the exceptionally able child would teach the class what they have learned
Choice• Allow the curriculum to become student centred, involving the gifted child in the curriculum decision process, thus giving them responsibility for their own learning. This allows for the curriculum to be drawn from their interests and educational needs.
• Allow children the choice when it comes to project work. This can appeal to a variety of learners from the child who is less able to the gifted child. Encourage more creativity and original thinking among children who are exceptionally able. Independent project work allows research skills, higher-order thinking skills, communication skills to be developed. These research skills will need to be explicitly taught.
• Help children learn the value of attaining knowledge in their lives by encouraging learning for the sake of learning rather than a focus on an end product
• Encourage students to set individual learning goals for themselves.
Games• Use of a tic-tac-toe menu (see image). Children could complete these in any order or just complete one to present knowledge. These can be adapted for many subjects and topics.
• Ensure children have something to work on when they finish their work (see below images of early finishers poster) and Boggle
• Allow children to blog e.g. https://kidblog.org/home/
Pace• Allow children to work ahead on other topics if the pace of the average class is too slow.
• Pre-test to establish previous knowledge before starting something e.g. KWL chart, pre-test for spelling, mindmap for maths topic etc.
• Allow for independent learning as discussed before.
Blooms Taxonomy (Adapted from NCCA, 1999)
Bloom’s Taxonomy can be used as a framework to differentiate for the gifted child. The following are ways in which learning skills can be embedded into increasingly complex content for exceptionally able students.
Remembering:
Children need a core of factual knowledge and theories. In order to gain this knowledge they need to develop research skills and abilities.
Remembering is involved in activities which ask:
• What happened when…?
• Make a list…
• Write an account…
• Make a summary
Understanding Children who are exceptionally able need to demonstrate higher order understanding such as learning how to interpret knowledge by presenting a new perspective, comparing and contrasting ideas and view-points, re-ordering information and examining consequences.
Higher order understanding is shown through activities such as:
• Write a summary of the main points…
• Explain why that happened…
• Discuss this from the point of view of…
• What are the similarities between…?
• Explain the differences between…
• What would have happened if…?
• How would this affect…?
• Why did… react in this way…?
• What were the results of this…?
Applying refers to the process of putting knowledge to use, by manipulating and constructing this knowledge in different situations.
Applying knowledge involves the following activities:
• How would you use this to…?
• How does this rule apply…?
• How can you use what you have learned to solve this…?
• Does the same principle apply in this…?
• What else do you know that would apply…?
• Is this the same kind of…?
• Construct a diagram to show…
• Conduct an experiment to prove…
• Paint a picture to show…
Analysing knowledge to understand relationships and patterns.
How are they the same/different?
How is _______ related to _______?
Why do you think _______?
What conclusions can you draw _______?
What is the theme of _______? What is the motive of _______?
Compare and contrast two of the main characters.
Differentiate fact from opinion.
Evaluating
This skill involves making evaluations and judgements.
Evaluation can be developed by asking students:
• How do you know…?
• On what grounds can you justify…?
• What is the evidence…?
• Why would you make that decision…?
• What are the arguments for and against…?
• Why do you believe…?
• Did… have a valid case…?
• Draw a conclusion giving reasons…
CreatingThis involves synthesising information to design, create or imagine something new.
Synthesis is shown in activities which ask:
- Do you agree with…?
- How would you change…?
- What would happen if…?
- Is there another way…?
- Is there another conclusion…?
- In how many ways can you…?
Giftedness may be thought of as asynchronous development. This suggests that gifted children are on a developmental trajectory that is outside of norms from infancy onward. They reach recognized milestones of development on a schedule that is unique to them, putting them out of sync with society's expectations. In addition, they may be out of sync internally, with cognitive, social and emotional development on separate and sometimes quite different timetables
Children capable of high-performance include those with demonstrated achievement and/or potential ability in any of the following areas, singularly or in combination:
• General intellectual ability or talent
• Specific academic aptitude or talent
• Visual and performing arts and sports
• Leadership ability
• Creative and productive thinking
• Mechanical ingenuity
• Special abilities in empathy, understanding and negotiation (NCCA, 2007, p. 8).
Identification of Exceptionally Able Pupils
While there are many different approaches to the identification and assessment of exceptionally able students, it is important to note that the most holistic approach is one that uses a combination of methods. Assessment could include:
• Observation
• Parent/Guardian Referral
• Peer referral
• Self-referral
• Referral by others
• Teacher referral
• Identification by psychologists
• General checklist
• Subject Specific Checklists
How to differentiate for the Gifted Child
At a whole school level (NCCA, 1999)
• The SEN co-ordinator should endeavour to raise knowledge and awareness of exceptionally able children.
• Teachers should be made aware how to recognise children who are exceptionally able.
• Teachers should have high expectations of children who are exceptionally able
• Link with partner schools to ensure smooth transition from one school to the next
• Liase with parents
• Ensure SEN policies make reference to children who are gifted
• A useful audit of current school practices in relation to the gifted child can be found here on page 56
Use of ICTICT can be an effective method of differentiating the gifted child:
• ICT can allow children who are gifted to progress at their own pace (differentiation by pace)
• ICT allows for various learning styles
• ICT also develops higher order thinking skills e.g. researching, communicating etc.
• ICT gives children up to date information on a vast array of topics of interest
• ICT allows for collaborative learning experiences
Ideas for the use of ICT:
English:
• Reading eggs allows for individuals to work at their own individual level on a variety of literacy tasks https://readingeggs.com/
• Cybraryman – variety of word games http://cybraryman.com/words.html
• Storybird – Creating stories online https://storybird.com/
SESE
• Research of SESE projects can be carried out online and presented in a variety of ways e.g. Word, Powerpoint, Prezi https://prezi.com , Visme https://www.visme.co/ , Microsoft Note etc.
• http://dohistory.org/
• http://www.criticalpast.com/
• http://www.worldatlas.com/aatlas/world.htm
• http://docs.google.com/present/view?id=dhn2vcv5_175fp5qg9d3 Using google earth in the classroom
Maths
• http://www.mathletics.com/
• http://jmathpage.com/
• http://www.mathsweek.ie/resources/index.html
• http://nrich.maths.org/public/
• http://www.cut-the-knot.org/collection.shtml
Extra-curricularMusic
• https://www.noteflight.com/
• https://flat.io/
• https://onlinesequencer.net/
Differentiation:
Keep the child at the same level but differentiate the material they are given in various ways.
• Task
• Tasks can be set relating to the same activity. Exceptionally able students can begin at a higher level, miss the first activities or move through the work at an increased rate.
• Taking advantage of real life experiences to encourage problem solving e.g. snowstorm.
• Team teaching with colleagues can allow for differentiation within the classroom setting.
• ‘Students’ as experts strategy whereby the exceptionally able child would teach the class what they have learned
Choice• Allow the curriculum to become student centred, involving the gifted child in the curriculum decision process, thus giving them responsibility for their own learning. This allows for the curriculum to be drawn from their interests and educational needs.
• Allow children the choice when it comes to project work. This can appeal to a variety of learners from the child who is less able to the gifted child. Encourage more creativity and original thinking among children who are exceptionally able. Independent project work allows research skills, higher-order thinking skills, communication skills to be developed. These research skills will need to be explicitly taught.
• Help children learn the value of attaining knowledge in their lives by encouraging learning for the sake of learning rather than a focus on an end product
• Encourage students to set individual learning goals for themselves.
Games• Use of a tic-tac-toe menu (see image). Children could complete these in any order or just complete one to present knowledge. These can be adapted for many subjects and topics.
• Ensure children have something to work on when they finish their work (see below images of early finishers poster) and Boggle
• Allow children to blog e.g. https://kidblog.org/home/
Pace• Allow children to work ahead on other topics if the pace of the average class is too slow.
• Pre-test to establish previous knowledge before starting something e.g. KWL chart, pre-test for spelling, mindmap for maths topic etc.
• Allow for independent learning as discussed before.
Blooms Taxonomy (Adapted from NCCA, 1999)
Bloom’s Taxonomy can be used as a framework to differentiate for the gifted child. The following are ways in which learning skills can be embedded into increasingly complex content for exceptionally able students.
Remembering:
Children need a core of factual knowledge and theories. In order to gain this knowledge they need to develop research skills and abilities.
Remembering is involved in activities which ask:
• What happened when…?
• Make a list…
• Write an account…
• Make a summary
Understanding Children who are exceptionally able need to demonstrate higher order understanding such as learning how to interpret knowledge by presenting a new perspective, comparing and contrasting ideas and view-points, re-ordering information and examining consequences.
Higher order understanding is shown through activities such as:
• Write a summary of the main points…
• Explain why that happened…
• Discuss this from the point of view of…
• What are the similarities between…?
• Explain the differences between…
• What would have happened if…?
• How would this affect…?
• Why did… react in this way…?
• What were the results of this…?
Applying refers to the process of putting knowledge to use, by manipulating and constructing this knowledge in different situations.
Applying knowledge involves the following activities:
• How would you use this to…?
• How does this rule apply…?
• How can you use what you have learned to solve this…?
• Does the same principle apply in this…?
• What else do you know that would apply…?
• Is this the same kind of…?
• Construct a diagram to show…
• Conduct an experiment to prove…
• Paint a picture to show…
Analysing knowledge to understand relationships and patterns.
How are they the same/different?
How is _______ related to _______?
Why do you think _______?
What conclusions can you draw _______?
What is the theme of _______? What is the motive of _______?
Compare and contrast two of the main characters.
Differentiate fact from opinion.
Evaluating
This skill involves making evaluations and judgements.
Evaluation can be developed by asking students:
• How do you know…?
• On what grounds can you justify…?
• What is the evidence…?
• Why would you make that decision…?
• What are the arguments for and against…?
• Why do you believe…?
• Did… have a valid case…?
• Draw a conclusion giving reasons…
CreatingThis involves synthesising information to design, create or imagine something new.
Synthesis is shown in activities which ask:
- Do you agree with…?
- How would you change…?
- What would happen if…?
- Is there another way…?
- Is there another conclusion…?
- In how many ways can you…?
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Practical Tips for Parents of Gifted Children
• Spend time with your child.
• Listen to their ideas.
• Try to share their passions and encourage these passions.
• Read to younger children and discuss the content of the books with them even though they may have learned to read early on.
• Praise the effort, not the ability! By praising the amount of work the child puts into an activity it's giving him or her the message that it's okay to make mistakes. Gifted learners can often strive for perfection all of the time.
• Ensure that your child can spend time with similar children.
• Discuss your child’s needs and abilities with your school.
• Get informed about giftedness
• Spend time with your child.
• Listen to their ideas.
• Try to share their passions and encourage these passions.
• Read to younger children and discuss the content of the books with them even though they may have learned to read early on.
• Praise the effort, not the ability! By praising the amount of work the child puts into an activity it's giving him or her the message that it's okay to make mistakes. Gifted learners can often strive for perfection all of the time.
• Ensure that your child can spend time with similar children.
• Discuss your child’s needs and abilities with your school.
• Get informed about giftedness